The principles of botany, and of vegetable physiology

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_ PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY,

AND OF

/

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY,

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN

OF

D. C; WILLDENOW,
_ PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY AND BOTANY

AT BERLIN.

(ERE e Same)

EDINBURGH ;
{Seinten at the Cniveritp prefs ;
BOR WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, SOUTH BRIDGE-STREET §

AND

| T, CADELL AND W. DAVIES, STRAND,
LONDON.

1805,

TO
DANIEL RUTHERFORD, M.D.
PROFESSOR OF BOTANY
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH;
THIS WORK IS
MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED

BY

THE EDITORS,

Anya H —— : ~4
a Ne YFARS!- Mar MH aava Cl ga GO 7A Je i Keon
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23 Ry,
Line esd
Pe ADVERTISE MENT.
wt AP PAE, EC :

Tur following work having superseded in Germany
all other Introductions to Botany, of the longest
standing and greatest reputation, it occurred to the
present Editors that a translation of it would be a ~

very acceptable present to the lovers of natural

science in this country. They do not here intend.

to draw a comparison between this and the elemen-
tary treatises on Botany in our own language; but
it may be allowable to say that it contains many
things which are not to be found in any of them ;
particularly an explanation of the phenomena of Ve-
eetable Physiology, on the principles of the latest
discoveries in chemistry. ‘There are also added sec-
tions on the Diseases of Plants, a History of the
Science, and an account of Botanical Writers. ‘The
Plates illustrate every botanical term; and the table
of Colours, which is altogether new, will be of es-

sential use to students, not of Botany only, but also

of Natural History in general.

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CONTENTS.

(nTRODUCTION eee irseraeea ti iesteaitacssetetenscelcccatsesavese page 1
OF the study Of Botany -.cccsecseeerecrersescessersscssrersversseseee 6 5
Rules for forming a Herbari IUIM cceesccccerteeeeratee ttc ceee toe es soeee GASLD®

Of the Terms used in describing the outer surface of
RoWwlants \esuesseccrscearccctese: Diaeesereticcetn cases ntcascecscetecessedcs § 6
OF the different periods. of) Vemetation .isasivcsessescscsoescese: 97
Os the Measures used in Botany -.ccsccssccsesceees sueccaaalectrese 98
Pe DER MINOT OGM tres ciscescctedesccvedsoese .. page 12
Of the Root csvesrecereressereerscscesserreersee SS BREN a RA oO § 10
Of! the Stem seen etal NUR a, Stee § 12
Of the Leayes .:..sssss Bereta avesartecseeteabestoasisasvebepdasseseses 0) PP
Of Ghiey Hiromi! «eevee Noes cece eeu besst dic sscavsscccendetel § 24
Of Props voseesreereresssees aretccceesscontcorrects peareceeries iSirceeses Sheath a
Of the mode of Flowering Nese tec: aadeesccceceennveses ets A Bl
Of the Flower and its PArts csecesenseeseereoese Dedewscheasesste eo OO
Of the Fruit and its PALES sescecsseseresesenesersseeesnesserees ee ORO
Of what is called a false Writs ose MeN ebecva tt LOL M LS
Of the Seed aNd its parts ssorsssssecssesess Strenecensen et asssesscer § 114

Of the Receptacle Bgeuescacsareccrederecedeececrcrethecscntscvanesscerdce 9 ] 16

i CONTENTS.

IT. CUASSIBICATION cieccssecrsscseresesee Page 128

Of Systems, natural, artificial, and sexual MA OEE 8 121

Of the Natural HamiliesiofaPlamtsmmeercccscsescerceessere: 6 122
Of ‘Systemsiin general very .tev-eees GI HAIN ZN § 123
Uhemsystem of Caecalalniishssmvetsccceetesvsesestesncesenccs vee § 126
MOTISOI oe UMC caaes coe) cuelessveseseenaeat on | OMIA
ne) FLETEMANM sesceccccivosescaccoveepteccsooscacverees 9 128
——_-__—_ K rat (0; ec te ePeePeN nrc tc sc abonseesusecccrsseeee § 129
aba Boerhaave tae classes seevesetas Olson,
IVD Yaieseeveceratcuscssencnsmeseccncarestiecrerasianos es Calis,
mm ——————— Ca mellus v..cccccccccvssssosergeccecsecsesscenngeres § 132
nn RIVINUS ceccscssecsssserertscsersscccosnensrocsrens Ay ahexe9
ar SE (Winistian Mingus er ane eta 9 134
———_ "TOUrMefOrt ....scccscccsrsecccecssrcssrconrvscesee 9 L3G
ACHE CEOS eer case ate MEER Ml oe Geeta § 137
pace RAITT On gs ee ral dese cvoet ee Meese etenean ee erence dO 138
— TANTIACUS) te.teecsasceccceceyccuseseceesenserneoeces § 139
Of the improvements made in the Linnean System .... 9 142
Of the Natural Orders of Plants ......csscscscsssceceseereserd 9 143
{Il. BOTANICAL APHORISMS .....:.:.04. page 161

Of the Method of acquiring a knowledge of Plants .... § 145
Of the Genera of Plants, and how to distingiish and

Establishy thenaryisccysercvinesccsesesstecoccercecereete Pe eeveereteeeshO “ba
Oritive, Chanactersonmudatitceccctsesesseraresonentcurersetccstecs tn: § ib.
Ofte their Otructumememenec ct: ccc cacy 7a urea te eee ae nla!
Of the Species and Varieties of Plants .......... eee Orley
Hulesifon/Gistim Ouisiimon SPC Cle) <tyerrsertcreccecssgecereecerseeste § 183
Of the Method of describing: Plants ..ccrvsescsecosssocsenersny § 195
Of the Method of describing the essential difference —

of Plants only, or, of the Diagnosis of Plants........ § 196

UNH AetestOn Elamicvarvaretreccterecmrctvereenieertscesn sO) Lec

CONTENTS. i

Of the Colours OLDE SPeaMascrecccatttetscnecteasstsoasnrgeseree (10) LOO) |
Of the Method of determining Plants sesso § 204

IV. NOMENCLATURE OF PLANTS... page 206

VPN STOUOC Me Sieccceccsessuretesorerss page 218

Of the different powers of organized bodies .......+00 § 225
Oi thel chemical principles Of Plants c.cc:.ccccvensosescoooseoss Q 229
Of the Substances formed by their combination........ § 230
Of the different Vessels of Plants, air wessally ee
atic vessels, he Besnaesnua Niven ott BMW iielcroeceocaees) 0 LOD
Of the cellular texture sof Plants oe Paci, aa ccaeet 0237
Of the sap of Plants ........s100 Hevenersvsecseesssevese ss Miseestee aOR LOS
MT MERUN AUS DILIMOMPORE STOR DIATItS|tvectescssseestsccceonsesereeee § 239
Ofmiire mtemperanurer Olu lAMtsi.sersewscrcocescosoessees se sereeh en TO 240:
Of the phenomena of Germination -.cccsresreeceroerers § 242
Of the structure of the Root. SOLE PERCE TREO oe 9,252
Of the structure of the Stem......... HON eva Abie eONeE § 260
Of the’ five varieties of, ligneous: Plants’ ........,..0.-s.%e- § 262
Of hte structure Of the Phorm ..:.......-.ecsessrvseeee PiveeeessesigOieOO
aia Prickle wos. ii Ais, Se aan § 266
mien Merpdlitll ada bie nate § 267
— SME Ete tee sesecnlestesclcccssossessscecsose § 268
———~ CEMMMOCP UG, seressonceess cases cereeet ce § 269
Of the structure of ie MCA eSievaiccscvoseseosuseeteessseceeeceos § 270
Of the inhalation and exhalation of Plants § 272. and § 278
ii eRcinorilatiOnyOApheNOAD|sctececetcs!casevocsecssceversscsees palnO 2 7.0K
Oiithevoreen| colowmpoty the Leayes j..sccoccssecsenisesoesceess § 281
Oi Chemmmcliitene nb Ginna tiOWiassscsteloseersesecssesssecosoot oosece Ou2e2
Of the evolution of the FIOWEr ......+sescscgeess Nee yore § 284
Of the impregnation of Pl ants Rvossecceeeetasgcnncunine iantes 9 289
Of their Generation ......cscseeeeee Gesveseasedasnesstuestecesy ee ORD
Oiniiverdeatlinuoigs Dlemtste sus estesvccsaveereeiersetesesccsseccsess § 297
Of the various duration of life in’ Plants .....c...s0se.se0 § 300
VI. DISEASES, OF PLANTS ..........00. page 336

External and. internal Par eais cues bacescsnussaervecetcamaceteereneée 6 304

ty | CONTENTS.

VIL HISTORY OF PLANTS... page 371
Influence of climate and soil upon plants. § 348
Of the revolutions in our globe, and their influence

UPOMM Vie MetALOM steccsesccecccncoucesessetesatenccotsrenes crescents 9 353
Of the dissemination of Pla tswecn aan nas cise curio tege Reed ONS Oi
OF the five principal Floras in Europe... Rede cesttaseane § 363

VI. HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE... page 409
Pity Chr (686 —

PRINCIPLES
or

BOTANY, VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, ‘5%,

INTRODUCTION:

, NUASaalt

A cursory view of this world of matter fhews;
that it consists of bodies either simple or compound :
the former are not to be decomposed by human art,
whether mechanical or chemical, and these are called
Elements, (Elementa); the latter are made up of
elements, and called Natural bodies, ( Naturalia.)

The science which teaches the properties of Ele-
ments is called Natural Philosophy or Physies, ( Phy-
sica): but that science by which we become ac-
quainted with the external forms and properties of
Natural bodies is called Natural History.—(¢ Hise

toria naturalis : scientia naturalis. )

: § 2.
The innumerable multitude of bodies which form
the province of Natural Hiftory, obliged the writers
On

INTRODUCTION«

on that subject, in the earliest times, to separate i¢
into primary divisions under the name of Kingdoms.
Aristotle was the first who established the division.
into the three kingdoms of Nature, namely, the
Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral or Fossil King-

doms*.—( Regnum animale, vegetabile, lapideum vel
minerale.

§ 3.

The different manner of their propagation charac-
terises the three Kingdoms of Nature. Fossils have
no organs. of generation; they remain always the

same, or are only capable of forming various com-
pounds, but never produce their like. Plants are
furnished with a great number of genital organs ;
but they lose them before their death: Animals, on
the contrary, retain these organs as long as life
lastsT.

That

* Some have added an Aqueous and an Igneous Kingdom ;
and Munchausen an intermediate kingdom containing the
Fungi, Corallia and Polypi. Some naturalists have content-
ed themselves with two kingdoms, the Living and Liteless ;
but this last division is insufficient, because the former must
be subdivided into Animals and Plants; and the other new
kingdoms of nature are in like manner superfluous.

++ Various means have been devised for discriminating’ Plants
and Animals; but hitherto no one has been so fortunate as to
discover a clear and satisfactory distinction, because nature has
not separated them by any accurate limits. Motion from one
place to another, the voluntary motion of particular parts,
the orifice by which the food is taken in, and that by which
the superfluous parts of it are discharged, are indeed charac-
teristic

INTRODUCTION:

§ 4.

That science which teaches us to distinguish one
plant from every other, and leads us to the know-
ledge of its properties, is called Botany, ( Botanice,
Botanica, Scientia botanica, Phytologia, Botanologia. )

Yo-teach this science properly, we must make the
student acquainted with every particular part of a
plant, and its use. ‘This is the purpose of the fol-
lowing work: but before proceeding, we must pre-
mise a few necessary hints and general observations.

| SO

The fitst object of a student of Botany, after be-
coming acquainted with the Terminology, is to ac-
quire an accurate knowledge of every plant as it
comes in his way. He must possess what may be
called a botanical eye, that he may be able to ex-
amine, with readiness, the stem, the leaves in all
their varieties, the mode of inflorescence, and all the
other conspicuous parts of a plant, so as to distins
guish it with accuracy from those which resemble it.
In this way he learns to know plants by their exter-
nal appearance or habit (habituss) With this know-

ledge; however, he must not be contented, but en-

teristic marks of the animal kingdom, particularly of the larger
animals, But there are certain plants which are ehdowed with
voluntary motion, and which, in some respects, remove from
- one place to another, nor ¢an any Oné shew us in the infusory
animals, or ini those allied to them, which resemble tlte Con-~
fervas, the Tremellas, and other small! plants, the organs ap-
propriated for the reception of tbe food or its discharge ?

A? deavour®

& _ INTRODUCTION«

deavour to attain an intimate acquaintance with the
parts of the flower and fruit, (partes fructijicationis ),
so as to be able to form distinct characters from
these particulars; and, till he has attained this ac-
quaintance, his knowledge cannot be said to rest om
scientific principles. ‘To derive the proper advantage
from such knowledge, he must endeavour to im-
print the form of the plant upon his memory. But
as from the immense number of plants this is almost
impossible, and often at particular seasons of the year,
plants which we would wish to compare with one
another are not to be found, we must endeavour to
assist ourselves by a collection of dried plants, ( Hor-
tus siccus, Herbarium). The rules to be observed in
forming such a collection are the following.

1. The plant is to be laid between folds of blos-
som paper, the parts of it properly spread out, and
the paper often changed, that the plant may not
shrivel or become black: this is to be done in a
moderately warm place, where the sun enters freely
and the current of air is not interrupted.

2. In drying the plant we must take care to give
the parts no direction which is unnatural to it; for
instance, we must not give to a fower, which natu-
rally hangs down, an erect position; flower-stalks
that are attached to one side must not be turned to:
both, a bent or procumbent stem, must be preserv-
ed in that state, &c.

3. The plants must be gathered at that particular
time when they possess all the characters by which
they are distinguished from others. If the differ-
ence 1s found in the root, in the radical leaves, or in

the

INTRODUCTION. © 3

the fruit, these parts, as being essential, must not be
wantilig.

4. Plants must not be gathered in moist weather,
because at that. time they generally turn black in
drying; and when it so happens, they must be left
to dry for some time in the air.

_ 5. Succulent plants are dried either with a wary
Stone or a hot iron; or, which is better, they are

_dipt in boiling water, and kept there for some mi-

nutes and then dried in blossom paper m the usual
way; butithe paper must be often changed. The

flowers must not be allowed to get wet, and they

must be pressed softly.

6. Succulent, and at the same time tender plants,
such as the Iris; must be dried between folds of
writing paper, after one has: previously bruised the
capsule; but this paper is not to be opened tll the
whole plant is thoroughly dry.

7. The Lichens are dried in the common way.

8. But the Musci must be carefully plucked asun-
der, and thrown into a vessel of water; and then laid
between two leaves of moistened writing paper,
which may be put in an old book with a consider-
able weight on it.

9. A press is likewise used for thistles and other
strong leaved plants.

10. ‘The Fungi in general are not easily preserved,

_but the smaller and coriaceous kinds may be dried ;

and afew of the larser ones may be prepared by
being plunged into boiling water.

A 3 When

Q INTRODUCTION.

When a collection of dried plants is thus made,
they are to be laid each in a sheet of white paper,
and arranged according to some system, and kept
in, a close locked cabinet, that they may not be eaten
by insects. In the drawers likewise of such a cabi-
net may be placed small bits of spunge moistened
with oil of rosemary or cajaput wraptin paper, by
which these depredators are kept off: even by fre-
quent perusal the collection is preserved.

Some botanists, and Linneus himself, advise the
gluing or pasting of the plants to the paper. But
many inconveniences attend this practice; for in this
case we can only see one side of the leaf or of the
flower, and when it is small we can hardly see it at
all. For a botanist it is much more convenient to
keep the plant loose, because it is often neces-
sary with the help of warm water to unfold the
flowers and observe their form; and he can substi-
tute a better specimen occasionally for an indiffer-
ent one, which is not so easily done when the plant
is pasted. If a person, however, wishes to fix his
plants, he may use slips of paper laid over the stem,
and pasted on each side, or he may fix them with a
thread.

-But an Herbarium alone is not sufficient for the
purposes of a botanist; he must likewise collect
and preserve the seeds of most plants and their fruit,
especially those that can be easily kept, and he will
find an acquaintance with these of great importance
to him,

The

~]

INTRODUCTION.

§ 6,

The outer surface of the different parts of plants
is very multifariously formed. ‘The following terms
have been settled, and are used in descriptions of
these various parts :

1. Glancing, (nitidus ), where the surface is so
smooth that it shines or glances, as in the leaves of
the holly, Hex aquifolium. |

2. Even, (/evis.), without striz, furrows, or rais-
ed dots. Itis the opposite of Nos. 5, 6, 19, 20,
24 and 25, i

8. Smooth, (g/aber_), when there are no visible
hairs, bristles or thorns. It is the opposite of No.
7—18, and 23..

4, Dotted, (punctatus), where small fine dots are
perceived by the eye, but not by the touch.

5- Rough, (scaber_), where small raised dots are
felt but not seen. _

6. Rugged, (asper_), when these dots are both
felt and seen.

7. Hispid, (hispidus ), beset with short stiff hairs.

8. Rigid, (hirtus.), where the hairs are mode-
rately long, but very stiff,

9. Hairy, (pilosus,), beset with long single hairs,
somewhat bent.

10. Villous, (villosus), where the hairs are long,
soft and white.

11. Pubescent, (pubescens), overgrown with short
fine white hairs.

12 Silky, (sericews), when the surface is white and
shining, by means of thick and almost invisible hairs.

A 4 3. Woolly,

se INTRODUCTION,

18 Woolly, (/anatus), when the furface is beset
with thick white hairs, so distinct as that they may
be separated.

14. ‘Vomentous, (tomentosus), when fine hairs are
so matted together that the particular hairs cannot
be separated. In this case the surface generally ap-
pears white, as in Shepherds Club, Verbascum; or
of a rust colour, as in Ledum.

15. Bearded, (darbatus), when the hairs. Bas in
tufts.

16. Strigose, Caveat when the surface is arm-
ed with small, close, rigid bristles, which are thick-
est below.

ie Stinging > (wrens), where a painful burning
sensation is caused by small hairs.

18. Fringed, (ciliatus), when on the margin of
the surface there is a row of hairs of equal length.

19, Warty, (papillosus), when small fleshy warts
appear.

20. Pustular, (papulosus), when there are small
dimples or cavities.

21. Muricated, (muricatus), armed with small
vee spines.

2. Glutinous, (glutinosus), when the surface is
Bethy with a slimy matter, which is soluble in
water.

23 Viscid, (viscidus), when the surface is covered
with a viscid matter which is resinous or greasy.

24 Striated, (striatus), when the surface is finely
streaked.

25 Furrowed, (sulcatus), when these streaks forna
small furrows,

ry

Vo

INTRODUCTION, bo)

ey Wee

To signify the general appearances of vegetation,
botanists often make use of figurative expressions.
The various periods of vegetation are,

1. The germination, (germinatio), when the seed
swells, and its little tender leaves begin to unfold.

2. Vernation, ( frondescentia, vernatio), when the
swollen buds of trees and shrubs unfold Bo
leaves.

3. Sleep, (somnus), when in the evening, or dur-
ing night, the leaves of various plants hang down
or collapse. |

4, Defoliation, (de foliatio), when in autumn, or,
as is the case with a few northern plants, in the
spring, the leaves fall off. |

5. Virginity, (virginitas), that precise time when
the flower-buds cf plants are not yet unfolded.

6, Expansion, (anthesis), is the time when the
flowers of plants are perfectly expanded. ‘Thus
in descriptions we say the flowers. hang down before
expansion (flores ante anthesin nutantes); or after
expansion they stand erect, wi flores post anthesir
‘erecti).

7. Estivation, (acstivatio), so the month or season
is called when the flower is in its greatest perfection.

8. Fructification, (fructificatio), is the precife pe-
riod in plants when the autherz: communicate their
. dust to the neighbouring parts.

9. Caprification, (caprificatio), that species of im-
pregnation which is performed without the imme-
diate influence of the plants themselyes,

10, Watch:

' tO INTRODUCTION.

10. Watchings, (vigilig), when flowers open or
shut at a particular hour of the day or night.

11. Grossification, (grossificatio), when after flor-
escence the future fruit begins to grow large.

12. Maturation, (maturatio), the time when the
iruit becomes ripe. |

13. Dissemination, (disseminatio), the means by
which the fruit after it becomes ripe is dissemin-
ated.

N. In the Physiology we shall treat es of
these several periods,

§ 8.

The various sizes of plants and of their parts has
given occasion to the following measures.

1. A hair-breadth, (capillus), the measure of a
hair, or the twelfth part ‘of a line.

2. A line, (linea), the length of the white cres-
cent at the root of the nail of the middle finger, or
the twelith part of an inch.

3. A nail length, (wnguis), the length of the nail
of the middle finger, or half an inch.

4. An inch, (pollex, uncia), the length of the first
joint of the thumb, the twelfth part of a foot.

5. A hand-breadth, (pa/mus), the breadth of the
four fingers of the hand, or three inches.

6. A fpan, (dedrans), as tar as one can span with
the thumb and the little finger, or nine inches.

7. A small span, (spithama), as far as one can
span with the thumb.and forefinger, or seven inches.

8. A foot, (pes), the length from the elbow to the
origin of the hand, or twelve inches.

1 9 A

—

INTRODUCTION. i

9. A cubit, (cubitus), from the elbow to the point
of the middle finger, or seventeen inches.

10. An ell, (ulna, brachium), the length of the
whole arm or four and twenty inches.

11. A fathom, (orgya), the length of the arms
stretched out from the tip of one middle finger te
that of the other, or six feet,

TERMINOLOGY.

0.

tn the descriptions of plants it is necessary that
each part have its particular name, and every variety
of it be marked by an appropriate expression, that
it may be known from every other. ‘Thus, in each
plant the beginner must distinguish the following
parts: the root (radim), the stem (caulis), the leaves
(folia), the props ( fulcra), the flower (fos), and the
fruit (fructus ).

| § 10. |
The root (radix), supplies the plant with the prin-
- cipal part of its nourishment; it is commonly hid
in the ground, and by it the vegetable is firmly fixed
in its place. Most plants have roots, and where
they appear to be wanting, as in some lichens, their
place is supplied by small tubercles. In general the -
Musci and Fungi are furnished with roots, though
this was formerly denied. ‘The slender fibres which

proceed from roots are called eS (radicula).
| The

PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c. 18

The shoots which a root sometimes sends from its
sides are called suckers (stolones).

The definition of a root in botanical terminology
is different from that in physiology. The former
considers every thing as root which is hid in the
earth, with the exception of such’ parts as resemble
buds. The latter calls only that root which serves
for keeping the plant firm in the ground, or for
conveying its nourishment: thus all the bulbous and
fleshy roots, as they are called, are, strictly speaking,
not roots; the fibres are the real roots; but more

of this in the Physiology.

Soelbile

The various kinds of roots are the following :

1. Spindle-shaped, ( fusiformis): perpendicular,
thick above, and growing smaller as it descends,
as in the carrot, Daucus carota, parsnip, See
sativa.

ap Perpendicular, (perpendicularis ), that is equally
thick and goes perpendicularly into the ground, as
in the shepherd’s purse, Thlaspi bursa pastoris.

_ 3. Horizontal, (horizontalis), that lies horizontally
in the ground, as in the common polypody, Poly-
podium vulgare, fig. 15.

4. Oblique, (obliqua), when the root lies obliquely
in the ground, somewhat between the perpendicular
and horizontal, as in thrift, Statice armeria.

5p credsiaas (repens), when the root creeps hori-
zontally under the earth, and at intervals pushes up.
stems, as in the couch-grass, Triticum repens,

4 5. Bit
mt

re yy. He ad
a

14 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &Xéss

6. Bitten, (premorsa), where the principal réot
appears as if a part of it were bitten off, as in devil’s
bit, Scabiosa succisa, the larger plantain, Plantago
MAO. |

7. Branched, (ramosa), divided into many ramifi«
cations, as in all trees and most plants.

8. Fibrous, ( fbrosa), when the root consists of 3
multitude of small fibres, as in most Grasses.

9. ‘Tuberous, (tuberosa), when certain fleshy pro-
tuberances called knobs, adhere to the root, as in
the potatoe, Solanum zuberosum, Sagittaria sagittifolia,
Brassica oleracea, Napobrassica, &c. Of this there
- are the following kinds.

a. Granulated, (granulata), when the knobs are
formed like small tubercles, as in Saxifraga
granulata.

b. Spherical, (g/obosa), when the knobs are
large, and of a round, spherical shape, as
in the radish, Raphanus sativus.

ce. Turnip-shaped, (napiformis), where the knobs
are round or longish, but run into a sharp
point, as in the common turnip, Brassica
rapa.

d. Oblong, oblonga, where the knobs are large,
and are more or less of a longish shape, as
in the potatoe, Solanum tuberosum. |

e. Hanging, (pendula), is like the preceding,
only the long-shaped knobs hang by threads,
or fibres, as in the Spiraea Llipendula.

Ff. Hollow, (cava), when the long knobbed root,
as soon as it attains its full growth, becomes

hol.

ANTS
ih yi
H OR
m
a:

SI

TERMINOLOGY. 15

hollow, without being. made so by insects,
as in Fumaria cava, Retz.

. Testiculated, (testiculata), when two longish
knobs grow together, as in the Orchis Morio,
fig. 18.

b. Palmated, (palmata), when two longish knobs
are connected and their points divided, as in
the Orchis Jatifolia, fig. 16.

i. Bundled, \( fascicularis), when cylindrical-
shaped knobs are connected at their origin, as
in the Ophrys nidus avis, fig. 21.

10. Dentated, (dentata), a fleshy branched root,
having teeth-like SO as in Ophrys corallorhiza
fig. 13.

11. Scaly, (squamosa), a fleshy root, covered with
many scales, as in Lathreea squamaria.

12. Articulated, (articulata), fleshy, filiform and
articulated, as in wood sorrel, Oxalis acetosella*.

exe)

§ 12.

The Stem serves chiefly for the elevation of the
leaves, flowers and fruit, and is a support to the
whole plant. Of this the following kinds are
knewn. ‘The stem (caulis), the trunk (¢runcus), the
straw (culmus), the stalk (scapus), the footstalk of
the flower ( pedunculus), the footstalk of the leaf

* ‘The tuberous root and its varieties are very different from
the bulbous, (bulbous, }. 43), which appears particularly from
this, that buds or eyes are formed on the surface of the for-
mer, whereas the bulb is itself a bud, and produces its shoots
either from the middle or from the side.

(p zi f Te

16 TERMINOLOGY.

(petiolus), the stipe (stipes), the shoot (surculus), and
the bristle (seta. ) ? °

§ 13.
‘The Stem (caulis), is peculiar to herbaceous plants,
and elevates leaves, flowers and fruit. Its separate
shoots are called branches (rami). Of the stem the

following kinds are known.

a. Simple Stems.

t. Quite simple, (simplicissima), without any
branches.

2. Simple, (simplex), with very few branches:

3. Entire, (integer), so called when furnished with
afew branches that stand close together; the same
term is also used when a simple stem is compared
with a branched one.

4. Somewhat branched, (subramosus), that somes
times has one or two branches.

b. Branched Stems.

5. Branched, (ramosus), divided into several
branches.

6. Much branched, (ramosissimus), where all the
branches are subdivided into a number of other
branches. |

7. Verticillated, (prolifer v. verticillatus), when,
from the point there issue a number of branches,
from the middle of which the trunk grows, so that
the branches seem to surround the stem in.a circular
form, as in the Scotch fir, Pinus sy/vestris.

8s Diche.

TERMINOLOGY. 17

8, Dichotomous, (dichotomus), when the stem, even
to the smallest branches, is divided into pairs, as
in the misletoe, Viscum album, and Valeriana oli:
foria. —

c. Stems differing in respect of the Branches.

9. Alternatebranches, (rami alterni). The branches
are so placed that between two on the one side there
rises but one on the opposite side. |

10. Opposite branches, (rami oppositi), when one
branch stands on the opposite side to another, and
the bases of each nearly meet together.

11. Distichous, (distichus), when the branches
being opposite to each other, stand on the same
plane: |

12. Scattered, (sparsus), when the branches stand
without order on the stem.

13. Close, (confertus), when the branches stand
So thick, and without order, that no empty space res
mains between them.

14. Brachiate, (brachiatus), when opposite branches
stand at right angles with each other, or cross-wise.

15. Rod-like, (wirgatis), when the branches are
very long, weak and thin.

16. Fastigiate, (fustigiatus), when all the branches
from bottom to top are of such different lengths
that they are of equal height.

17. Compact, (coarctatus), where the tips of the
branches are bent inwards towards the stem.

18. Spreading, ( patens), when the branches stand
nearly at right angles with the stem.

B 19, Di-

18 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

19. Diverging, (divergens), where the branches
form a right angle.

20. Divaricated, (divaricatus), where the branches
are so situated that they form an ebtuse oe above,
and an acute angle below.

21. Deflected, (deflexus), the branches hang down,
forming an arch. |

22. Reflected, (reflexus), where the branches hang
so much down that they almost run parallel with
the ster. !

23, Retroflected, (retroflexus), where the branches
are bent towards every side.

_d. Stems differing in respect os Situation.

24, Erect, (erectus), when the stem stands nearly
perpendicular.

25. Straight, (strictus), where the stem is perpen-
dicular, and quite straight.

26. Stiff, (rigidus), when it is so stiff that it
does not bend but break.

27. Limber, (/axus’, waving with the ie
motion of the wind.

28. Bent upwards (adscendens), when the stem
lies on the ground, but the upper part of it stands
erect. | ,

29. Bent downwards (declinatus), when the stem
is so bent towards the earth that it forms an arch.

30. Supported (fulcratus), that from above sends
roots down into the earth, which afterwards change
into real stems, as in the Rhizophora.

. Bent inwards, (incurvus), when the point is
bent in.
32, Nods

TERMINOLOGY: 19

298: Nodding, (nutans), when the point i is bent
down towards the horizon:

33. Procumbent, (procumbens, prostratus, humi
fusus), when the stem lies flat on the ground. :

34. Decumbent, (decumbens), when the .stem is
upright below, but above is bent down towards the
eround, so that the ereatest part of it is procumbent.

35. Creeping, (repens), when the stem lies along,
and sends out roots from below.

36. Sarmentose, (surmentosus), when the stem lies
along, but sends out roots only at certain intervals,
fig. 20.

37. Rooting, (radicans), when the stem stands up-
right and climbs, every where. Sending forth small
roots by which it holds itself fast, as in ie Ivy, He-
dera Helix.

38. Flexuose, (festoru, 9 where the 2 iret stem
bends itself in a zig-zag manner, so‘as to form a
number of obtuse angles, fig. 14. 4
5, 39: Climbing, (scandens), a weak stem that fastens
itself to some other body tor support, as the passion-
flower, Passiflora c@rulea: |

40. Twining, (volubilis), a weak stem that twine ina
serpentine form round other plants ; itis of two kidns,

a. Turning from the right, (dextrorsum), when
the stem twines from thre ‘left to the right,
round a supporting body, as in the bindweed,

- Convolvulus, fig. 25:

b. Turning from the left, (sinistrorsum), when
the stem twines from the left to the right,
round a supporting body, as in the hop, Hu-
mulus nes Fig. 32,

Ba e, Difs

20 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

e. Difference of Stems in respect of Clothing

41. Naked, (nudus), having no leaves, scales, of
the like. .

49. Leafless, (aphyllus), without any leaves.

43, Scaly, (squamosus), covered with scales.

44, Leafy, (foliosus), having leaves.

45. Bulbiferous, (dulbifer), having buds or bulbs
in the axille of the branches, as in the bulbiferous
lily, Liliam delbiferum.

46. Pertoliated, ( perfoliatus ), when the stem goes
through a leaf, as in Bupleurum, fig. 38.

f. Difference of Stems in respect of Figure.

47. Round, (feres), that is quite cylindrical, fig.
25, 27, 32.

48. Half-round, (semi- ne that is round on the
one side, and flat on the other, fig. 235.

49, Compressed, (compressus), when the stem is —
flat on both sides.

50. Two-edged, (anceps), when a compressed
stem is sharp on both edges.

51. Angled, Cia when a stem has seve-
ral angles, but the sides are grooved. Of this there
' are several kinds, viz.

a. Obtuse-angled, (obtuse angulatus ).

B. Acute-angled, (acute angulatus).

y. Three-angled, (triangularis).

8, Four-angled, (quadrangularis, &c.), fig. 237.
¢. Many-angled, (multangularis ).

52. Uhree-sided, (triquetrus), where there are
three sharp corners, and the sides quite flat, fig. 236.

53. ‘Three-

TERMINOLOGY? 9i

63. Three-cornered, (trigonus), when there are
three round or obtuse edges, but the sides appear
flat. Of this too there are several kinds:

a, Four-cornered, (¢etragonus), fig. 29.
pB. Five-cornered, (pentagonus),

y. Six-cornered, (hexagonus ).

§. Many-cornered, ( po/ygonus).

54. Membranaceous, (membranaccus). When the
stem is compressed and thin hike a leaf,

55, Winged, (alatus’, when on both sides of the
stem there is a membranaceous dilatation, fig. 265.

56. Knotted, (zodosus), when the stem is divided
by knobs. _ |

57. Knotless, (enodis), when it has neither knobs
nor joints. |

58. Articulated, ( articulatus), when the stem has
regular knobs at the joints, as in Cactus, fig. 233.

59. Jointed, (geniculatus\, when the stem has re-
gular knobs not seated on the joints.

g. Difference of Stems in respect of Substance.

60. Woody, (lignosus), that consists of firm
wood.

61, Fibrous, (ibrosus), that consists of woody
fibres, that can be easily separated.

62. Herbaceous, (herbaceus), that is weak, and
can be easily cut.

63. Fleshy, (carnosus), that is nearly as juicy and
soft as the flesh of an apple.

64, Firm, (solidus), internally hard. _,

65. Empty, (zanis), filled internally with a soft
pith,

BS 62, Hol.

29 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

66.. Hollow, (fi cdo), without any pith within,
and quite hollow.

67. With separations, (septis transversis interstinc-
tus), where either the pith or the hollow space is
divine by thin partitions.

68. Cork-like, (subcrosus), when the outer rind
is soft and spungy, as inthe Ulmus suberasa.

69, Rifted, (rimosus), when there are in the rind
thin clefts. or chinks *

§ 14. ! LeU

Thetrunx,( iruncus ), isproper to trees and shr tbe |

It is twofold: 1. Truncus arboreus, that has a crown

of branches at top: 2. Truncus fruticosus, that has
branches also below. )

5 15.

‘The STRAW, (culmus ), is proper onlyto the Grasses :
ihe kinds of it are pretty much the same with those
of the stem. It is however commonly knotted (n=
dosus), seldom knotless (encodosus), almost always
simple (simplex), seldom branched (ramosus) y in
some it is bristle-like (setaceus), without vagina, and
therefore naked, .(mudus) ; or siirrounded by the va-

gine of the” leaves (vaginatus ). For the surface,
see § Gu event

* The surface of the stem has also many varieties ; Sysco y) O.
When a sort of stem occurs in plants which does not come
under the above definitions exactly, we use the word su, asin
the leaves, § 23, and in other parts of plants : accordin gly we
say, caulis subaphyllus,. subteres, &c. that is, a. stem almost
leafless, somewhat round, &c.:

TERMINOLOGY. 2S

§ 16.

The sTa.k (scapus), differs from thestem in this,
that it issues straight from the root, and bears only
flowers, as in the lily of the valley, Convallaria ma-
falis ; Sagittaria sagittifolia, tc. fig. 44. Its varieties
are denominated like those of the stem. Linneus
has improperly, in some of the Filices, used the term
scapus caulinus.

Asal

The rLower-stTaLk, (pedunculus ), is found close
under the flower, and may be either a principal stem
or stalk, as in fig. 23, 27, 38, 44. ‘The sorts are,

1. One-flowered, (uniflorus), bearing only one
flower, fig. 23, 27. |

2. ‘Two or three-flowered, &c. (bi-triflorus), &c.

3. Common, (communis), when several . flower-
stalks unite in a common one. This flower-stalk
is much branched, and the partial stalks are then
called Pedicelli, pediculi.

4. Radical (radicalis), when a sinele flower-stalk
rises from the root, as in the violet, Viola odorata.

5. Petiolar, (petiolaris), when the flower-stalk is
Inserted in the leaf-stalk.

6. Axillary, (axillaris), when it is fixed in the
angle between the stem and the leaves.

7. Lateral, (/ateralis), when the flower-stalk is
found on the branches where there are no leaves,
er on the shoots of the former year, as in Boehmeria
ramiflora.

8a, Op-

240 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

8. Opposite, (oppositiflorus), when the particular.
flower-stalks stand quite opposite to one another.

9. Opposite to the leaf, (oppositifolius), when it
stands on the cther side exactly opposite to the leaf,

10, Beside the leaf, (/aterifolius), when it sits on,
the stem by the side of the leaf.

11. Under the leaf, (extrafoliaceus). when it is
seated under the leaf.

12. Between the leaves, (intrafoliaceus), when it is
seated on the stem between the leaves.

§ 18.

The leaf-stalk, (petiolus), bears only leaves. Its
kinds are,

1. Round, (eres), as in most plants.

2. Compressed, (compressus), asin the trembling
poplar, Populus tremula.

3. Channelled, (canaliculatus), when there is on
the surface a deep’ longitudinal furrow, as in the
butter-bur, Tussilago Petasites, Angelica Archan-
gelica. | |

4. Winged, (a/atus), when there is a leat-like ex-
pansion on two opposite sides of the leaf-stalk, as
in the orange, Citrus aurantium, fig. 2.

N. ‘The petiolus is denominated, as to figure and
surface, like the stem. }

§ 19.

Stipe, (stipes), ‘This term is applied only to the
Filices, Fungi and Palms. The different sorts of it
are denomimated like those of the stem.

tn

‘TERMINOLOGY. 25

in the Fungi the stipes is,

1. Ringed, (annulaius), § 38, fig. 4.

9. Naked, (nudus), having no rings, fi
224, 236.

3. Scaly, (squamosus), covered with distinct small
scales.

§ 20.

The shoot, (sureulus), is a term applied to the
stem which bears the leaves of the mosses. Of this
there are the following varieties.

1. Simple, (simplex), having no branches, as in
the Polytrichum commune, fig. 139, 142.

2. Branched, (ramosus), dividing into branches,
as in Mnium androgynum, fig. 138.

3. With hanging branches, (ramis deflexis), when
the stem is branched, but all the branches hang
down, as in Sphagnum palustris. |

4, Decumbent, (decumbens), that lies on the
ground.

5. Creeping, (repens).

6. Upright, (erectus).

§ 21.

The bristle, (seta), is that sort of stem which bears
only the fructification of the mosses, fig. 140. It is
always simple, and there are no other sorts of it
than in respect of position. It is sometimes single,
(solitaria), fometimes crowded (aggregata), some-
times on the point (¢erminalis), or on the side (avil-
laris, lateralis).

N. Plants

26 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

N. Plants that want the stem are called Planta
acatles.

§ 29.

The Leaves, (folia), are distinguished and deno-
minated according as they are simple or compound,
according to their situation, substance, or position,
their attachment or direction. Every simple leaf
must be considered in respect of its apex, its base,
its circumference, its margin and its two surfaces.

a

A. Simple Leaves.
a. In respect of the Apex.
A leaf is said to be

1. Hone: (acutum), when the leaf ends in a point,
fig. 68.

2. Acuminated, (acuminatum), when the point is
lengthened out, fig. 200.

3. Pointed, (cuspidatum), when the lengthened out
point ends in a small bristle, fig. 198.

4, Obtuse, (cbtusum), when the end of the leaf
is blunt or round, fig. 25.

5. Mucronate, (mucronatum), when there is a
bristle-shaped aculeus, situated on the round end of
a leaf, as in the Amaranthus Blitum.

6. Bitten, (praemorsum), when the leaf is as it
were bitten off at the point, forming a curved line,
as in the Pavonia premorsa.

7. Truncated, (¢rwncatum), when the point of the
leaf is cut across by a straight line, as in the Lirios

dendron tulipifera.
4 8. Wedges

be

TERMINOLOGY, HpeaTi

8. Wedge-shaped, (cuneiforme), when a truncated
leaf is pointed on both fides at the base.

9. Dedaleous, (dedalgum), when the point has a
large circuit, but is truncated and ragged.

10. Emarginated, (emarginatum), when an ob-
tuse pointed leaf has a part as it were taken out of
te yaperanctoe ay,

11. Retuse, (retusum,) when an obtuse leaf is
somewhat emarginated, but in a small decree.

12. Cleft, (fissum), when there is a cleft at the
point extending half way down the leaf. When
there is but one cleft at the point, the leaf is called
bifid, ( folium bifidum\; if there are two clefts it is
called trifid, (trifidum), tio. 23.\sit) there are more
clefts, the leaf is called quadrifidum, eee tdum &Ce
multi eae with many clefts.

13. Fan-shaped, ( flabelliforme), when a truncated
cuneiform leaf is at the point once or oftener
cleft.

14. Vridentated, (tridentatum), when the point is
truncated, and has three indentations.

b. fn respect of the Base.

15. Heart-shaped, (cordatum), when the base is
divided into two round lobes, the anterior part of
the leaf being ovate, 20, 27, 203.

16. Kidney-shaped, (reniforme), when the base
is divided into two round separate lobes, and the
anterior part of the leaf is round.

17. Moon-shaped, (/unatum), when both lobes at

the

28 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

the base have either a straight or somewhat arched
ine, and the anterior part of the leaf is round,

18. Unequal, (inequale), when one side of the
feat is more produced than the other, fig. 248.
19. Arrow-shaped, (sagittatum), when the base

is divided into two prejecting pointed lobes, and the
anterior part of the leaf is likewise pointed, fig. 44..

20. Spear-shaped, (hastatum), when the two
pointed lobes of the base are bent outwards.

21. Ear-shaped, (auriculatum), when there are
at the base two small round lobes bent outwards.
It is nearly the hastate leaf, only the lobes are
smaller and round, fig. 292.

ce. In respect of Circumference.

92, Orbicular, (orbiculatum), when the diameter
of the leaf on all sides is equal.

23. Roundish, (subrotundum), differs little from
the foregoing, only that the diameter is longer, el-
ther from the base to the apex, or from side to
side. |

24, Ovate, (ovatum), a leaf which is longer than
it is broad; the base is round and broadest, the apex
narrowest.

25. Oval or elliptical, (avale s. ellipticum), a leat
whose length is greater than its breadth, but round
both at base and apex.

26. Oblong, (ablongum), when the breadth to the
leneth is as 1 to 3, or the breadth always least, but
the apex and base vary, that is, they are sometimes
obtuse, sometimes pointed, )

TERMINOLOGY. 99

¥7. Parabolic, ( parabolicum), a leaf is so called
which is round at the base, then forms a smali bend,
and grows less towards the pemt, fig. 245.
28. Spatulate, (spatulatum), when the fore part
of a leaf is circular, growing smaller towards the
base, as in the Cucubalus Ofifes, fig. 238.
29, Rhombic, (rhombeum), when the sides of the
leaf run out into an angle, so that the leaf repre-
sents a square, fig. 22.
80. Oblique, (subdimidiatum),.is that leaf which
has one side broader than the other. Of this leaf
there are several varieties, as, |
a. Ueart-shaped oblique, (sub-dimidiato-cordatum), a
heart-shaped leaf, which is at the same time
oblique, as in the Begonia nitida, fig, 197.

6. Trapezitorm, (¢rapeziforme), a rhombic leaf, with
one side smaller than the other, &c.

31. Pandurzeform, (panduraforme), when an ob-
long leaf has a deep curve on both sides, fig. 24.

32. Sword-shaped, (ensiforme), an oblong leaf, ’
erowing gradually narrower towards the apex,
which is pointed; the sides are flat and have more
or less of ‘an arch-like form, as in the sword-flag,
Iris.

33. Lanceolate, Canccolatum), an oblong leaf,
which grows gradually narrower from the base to
the point.

34, Linear, (Jineare), when both sides of a leaf
run parallel to each other, so that itis equally broad
at the base and the apex, fig. 29.

35. Capillary, (capillaris), when a leaf has scarcely
any breadth, and is as fine as a thread or hair.

4: 36. Awi-

30 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC:

36. Awl-shaped, (subulatum), a linear leaf, which
is sharply pointed.

37. Needle-shaped, (acerosum), a linear leaf that
iS rigid, and generally endures through the winter;
as in the pine-tribe, Pinus. ,

38. Triangular, (triangulare), when the circum-
ference represents a triangle, the apex of which
makes the point of the leaf, as in the birch, Betula
alba.

39. Quadrangular, quinquangular, (quadrangu-
lare, quinquangulare), when the circumference of
the leaf has 4 or 5 angles, as in the Menispermum
canadenses : aa

40. Intire, (integrum s. indivisum); which is not
at all cleft or divided, fig. 203.

41. Lobed, (lebatum), when a leaf is deeply di-
vided nearly half its length into lobes. According
to the number of lobes it is denominated bi-lobed
(i-lobum), as in Bauhinia; tri- lobed, (tri-lobum),
carne: (quinguelobum), as In the hop, Hu-
mulus Lupulus, &c. fig. 32.

42; Palmated, (palmatum), when there are five
or seven very long lobes, that 1s, when the segments
are more than half way divided. | |

4.3. Divided, ( partitum), when in a roundish leaf
the division extends to the base.

44, Torn, (Jaciniatum), when an oblong leaf has
several irregular clefts. 3

45. Smuated, (sinuatum), when on the sides of
an oblong leaf there are round imcisures, as in the

oak, Quercus robur, fig. 289.

46. Pin-

TERMINOLOGY. \ 8d

46. Pinnatifid, (sinnatifidum), when there are re-
pular incisures, that go almost to the middle rib,
Aah:

4.7, Lyre-shaped, (/yratum), nearly the foregoing —
leaf, whose cuter segment is very large and round,
fig. 243. |

48, Runcinate, (runcinatum), when the incisures
of a pinnatifid leaf are pointed, and form a curve be-
hind, as in the dandelion, Leontodon Taraxacum,
fig. 24:2.

49, Squarroso-laciniate, (squarroso-laciniatum),
when the leaf is cut almost into the middle rib, and
the incisures run in every direction, as in the thistle,
Carduus Janceolatus, fig. 265. |

N. The contour of the leaves from No. 41 to 43
is round. From No. 44 to 49 it is oblong. -

d. In respect of the Margin.

50. Quite entire, (integerrimum), when the mar-
gin is without either notch or indentation, fig. 1. 2.

N. This No. 30. and No. 40. are often con-
founded. An intire leaf is merely the opposite of the
numbers from 40 and 41 to 49. It may often be
either dentated or serrated. A quite intire leaf may
indeed be formed like numbers from 41 to 47, but
it can have no indentations or serratures, as in the
following leaves.

51. Cartilagineous, (cartilagineum), when the mar-
ein consists of a border of a harder substance than
the disk.

52. Undulated, (wndulatum), when the margin is
alternately bent in and out, fig. 39, 197.

53, Cren.

32 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC:

Crenated, (crenatum), when the margin is set
with small and round notches, having at the same
time a perpendicular position.

54, Repand, (repandum), when there are on the b
margin small sinuses, and between them segments
of a small circle, fig. 20.

55. Yoothed, (dentatum), when the margin is set
round with small pointed and distinctly separated
tect, hes 32:

56. Duplicato-dentate, (duplicato-dentatum), when
each small tooth of the margin is again dentated, as
in the elm, Ulmus campestris, fig. 248.

57. Dentato-crentate, (dentato-crenatum), . when
each tooth is set with small arid round denticull.

58. Serrated, (serratum), when the teeth, on the
margin are very sharp pointed, and stand so close
that one seems to lie on the back of another.

59. Gnawed, (erosum), when the margin is une-
qually sinuated, as if it had been gnawed, as in
some species of sage, Salvia,

60. Spiny, (spinosum), when the margin is set
with spines, as in the thistle, Carduus.

61. Fringed, (ciliatum), when the margin is set
round with strong hairs, of equal length, and at a
considerable distance from one another.

e. In respect of their Surface.

62. Aculeated, (aculeatum), when the surface is
covered with spines.
Hollow, (concavum), when there is a hollow
in the middle of the leaf.

64, Chan-

TERMINOLOGY. 32,

64. Channelled, (canaliculatum), when the middle
rib of along and narrow leaf is furrowed.

65. Wrinkled, (rugosus), when the surface is
yaised between the veins of the leaf, and thus forms
wrinkles, as in sage, Salvia. ,

66. Bullate, (dul/atum), when the parts raised
between the veins on the surface appear like blisters.

67. Pitted, (Jacunosum), when the raised places
between the veins are on the under surface, so that
the upper surface appears pitted.

68. Curled, (crispum), when the leaf is fuller on
the margin than in the middle, so that it must lie
in regular folds, fig. 35. |

69. Folded, ( plicatum), when the leaf lies in re-
gular straight folds from the base.

70. Veined, (venosum), when the vessels of a leaf
rise out of the middle rib. ‘This is the case in most

plants, fig. 2, 14, 25, 27, 245, 248, 289, &c.

_ 71. Netwise veined, (reticulato-venosum), when the
veins which rise from the middle-rib again subdi-
vide into branches that form a sort of net-work.

72. Ribbed, (costatum), when veins arise out of
the middle, and proceed in a ftraight line towards
the margin im considerable numbers and close to-
gether, as in the Calophyllum Inophyllum, Canna,
Pisang, Musa, &c.

73. Nerved, (nervosum), when the vessels rising
out of the petiolus run from the base to the apex,
fig. 200, 203.

74, Three-nerved, (trinervium), when three nerves
take their origin from the base, fig. 100. Thus we

C like-

4 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

likewise | say, quinguen. ert vium, septemmervium, fig.
BOSRT OIG: |

75. ‘Triple-nerved, (¢riplinervium), when out of the
side of the middle nb above the base there arises a
nerve running towards the point, asin Laurus Cinna-
monum, and Camphora, fig. 290.

76. Quintuple-nerved, (quintuplinervium), when
out of the middle rib, above the base, there arise
two nerves running towards the point, fig. 201.

77. Septuple-nerved, (septuplinervium), when on
each side of the middle rib above the base three
nerves arise and proceed to the apex, fig. 2

78. Venoso-nerved, (venoso-nervosum), when ina
leaf having nerves, the vessels run into branches as
in a veined leaf, as in the Indian cress, Tropxolum
Haus. NO. tT. os.

no: incall (lincatum), when the whole leaf is
full of smooth se vessels that run from the
base to the apex*: |

80. Nerveless, (enervium), when no nerves rise
from the’ base.

81. Veinless, (avenium), where there are no
velns.

2. Dotted, ( pumctatum), when instead of ribs or
veins there are dots or points, as in the Vaccinium
vitis idea. te

83. Coloured, (coloratum), a leaf of some other
colour than green. |

* Linneeus often calls that a podium /ineatuim which is veined,
Jbut where the veins run in pretty straight lines, and are highly
raised, as in the Zizyphus volubilts.

3 84, Cowled,

TERMINOLOGY. ge

84. Cowled, (cucullatus), when in a heart-shaped
eaf the lobes are so bent towards each other as to
have the appearance of a cone.

85. Convex, (convexum), when the middle of the
leaf is thicker than the rim, raised on the upper
surface and hollowed on the under.

86. Keel-shaped, (carinatum), when on the sacle
surface of a linear, lanceolate or oblong leaf, the
place of the middle rib is formed like the keel of
a ship.

B. Compound Leaves.

87. Compound, (composi‘um), when several leaves
are supported by one footstalk. To this term be-
long Nos. 88, 92, 95, 96, 97. But when the leaf
agrees with the above definition, although it should
not come under any of the following kinds, it is still
to be considered as a compound leaf. ?

88. Fingered, (digitatum), when the base of se-
veral leaves rests on the point of one footstalk, as
in the horse-chesnut, Aesculus ippocastanum.

89. Binate, (binatum), when two leaves stand by
their base on the tep of one stalk; but if the two
foliola of a binate leaf bend back in a horizontal
direction, it is called a conjugate leaf, (folium con-
ugatum ).

290, Bigeminate, ‘(bigeminatum, bigeminum), when
a divided leaf-stalk at each point bears two leaves,
as In some species of Mimosa, fig. 217.

91. Trigeminate, (trigeminatum or tergeminum),
when a divided leaf-stalk on each pomt bears two
Feaves, and on the principal stalk, where it divides,

C2 there

40 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &Cc.
there is a leat at each side, as in the Mimosa terge-
mind, fig, 234. |

92. Ternate, (fernaium), when three teaves are
supported by one footstalk: as in the clover, Tri-
jolium pratense, strawberry, Fragaria vesea.

(93. Biternate, (biternatum, s. duplicato-ternatum),
when a footstalk which separates into three at each -
point bears three leaves. |

94, Triternate, Criternatum s. triplicato-ternatum),
when a footstalk which separates into three is again
divided at each point imto three, and on each of
these nine points bears three leaves, fig. 207.

95. Quinate, (quinatum), when five leaves are
supported by one footstalk: this, it is true, has
some affinity with No. 88, but varies on account of
the number five, as in the other there are generally
inore leaves. pea

96. Pedate, (pedatum s. ramosum), when a leat-
stalk is divided, and in the middle where it divides
there is a leafet, at both ends there is likewise a
leafet, and on each side between the one in the
middle and that on the end, another, or two or even
three leaves. Such a leaf, therefore, consists of 5,
7, or 9 leafets that are all inserted on one side, as
in the Helleborus viridis, fetidus and niger, fic, 246 :

97. Pinnated, (pinnatum), where on an undivided
leaf-stalk there is a series of leafets on each side and
on the same plane. Of this there are the follow
ing kinds. Sgt | |

a. Abruptly pinnate, (pari-pinnatum s. abrupte-
pinnatum), when at the apex of a pinnated
leaf there is no leafet, fig. 30.

2 B. Pin-

TERMINOLOGY. ......, ou

;

8. Pinnate with an odd one, (impari-pinnatumis
s. pinnatum cum impari), when at the apex of
a pinnated leaf there is a leafet.

Oppositely pinnate, (opposite pinnatum), when

the leafets on a pinnated leaf stand opposite

to one another. |

Alternately pinnate, (alternatim pinnatum),

when the leafets on a pinnated leaf stand al-

ternately, fig. 30.

Interru ale pinnate, (interrupte pinnatun),

when in a pinnated leaf each pair of alter-

nate leafets is smaller, fig. 8.

2. Jointedly pinnate, (articulate pinnatum), when
between each pair of opposite pinnule or
leafets the stem is furnished with a jointed
edge, fig. 239,

1, Decursively pinnate, (decussive pinnatum),
when from each particular pinnula a folia-
ceous appendage runs down to the following
one, fig. 2

%. Decreasingly pinnate, (pinnatum foliolis de-
crescentibus), when the successive folicla on
a pinnated leaf grow gradually smaller to
the point, as in Vicia sepium.

_ 98. Conjugately pinnated, (conjugate-pinnatum),

when. a leaf-stalk divides, and each part makes a

pinnated leaf, fig. 222. ;

99. Digitato-pinnate, (digitate-pinnatum), when se-.
veral simply pinnated ravess from four to five,
ane on the point of one stalk, as in Mimosa pudica,

fig, 285.

=

‘3
e

e

£

re
°

G3 100. Doubly

53 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

100. Doubly pinnate, (dipinnatum, duplicato-pii-
natum), when a leaf-stalk bears, on one plane on
both sides, a number of leaf-stalks, of which each is
a pinnated leaf, fig. 249.

101, Trebly pinnate, (¢riplicato-pinnatum, s. tri-
pinnatum), when several doubly pimnated leaves are
attached to the sides of a foot-stalk on one plane,
fig. 24:7,

102. Doubly compound, (decompositum), when a
divided leaf-stalk connects several leaves; of this
kind are Nos. 90, 91, 93, 98, 99, 100. But the
term decompositum is only used when the division
oi the leaf-stalk and of the pinnule is irregular,
fip. 241, ee | )

103, Super-decompound, (supra decompositum),
when a leaf-stalk, which is often divided, sustains
several leaves; to this belong No..94, 101! But
then the term is used only when the divisions of the
leafets are elther more numerous or not so regular.

C. In respect of the Place.

104. Radical, (radicale), when a leaf springs
from the root, as in the violet, Viola odorata. Sa-
gittaria sagittifolia, fig. 44. ;

105. Seminal, Cue when a leaf grows out
of the parts of the seed, asin the hemp, where, as
soon as it springs, there appear two white bodies,

>which are the two halves of the seed, that change
nto leaves.

106. Cauline, (caulinum), which is attached to”
the principal stem. The root-leaves and stem-leaves
of a plant are often very different.

107. Ra-

TERMINOLOGY. 39

107. Rameous (rameum), when a leaf yises from
the branches.

108. Axillary, (axillare v. subalare), which stands
at the origin of the branch |

09. Floral, (florale), which stands close by the
flower, fig. 33. ;

D. In respect of Substance.

110. Membranaceous, (membranaceum), when
both membranes of a leaf lie close upon one ano-
ther without any pulpy substance between them, as
in the leaves of most trees and plants.

141. Vleshy, (carnosum), when between the mem-
branes there is much soft and pulpy substance, as in
houseleek, Sempervivum fectorum.'

112. Hollow, (tubulosum), when a somewhat
fleshy and long leaf is internally hollow, as in the
onion, Allium Cepa. |

113. Cylindrical, (teres), when it is formed like
a cylinder. |

114. Compressed, (compressum), when a thick
leaf is flat on both sides. Hie

115, ‘Uwo-edged, (anceps), wien a compressed
leaf is sharp on both edges.

116. Depressed, (depressum), when the upper sur-
face of a fleshy leaf is pressed down, or as it were
hollowed out.

17. Flat, (planum), when the upper surface of a
thick leaf forms an even plane.

118. Gibbous, (gibbosum s. gibbum), when both
surfaces are convex. )

9, Scimitar-shaped, (acinaciforme), a two-edged
G4 thick

40 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

thick leaf, on one side sharp and arched, on the
other, straight and broad. |

120. Axe-shaped, (dolabriforme), when a fleshy
leaf is compressed, circular on the upper part, con-
vex on the one side, sharp-edged on the other, and
cylindrical at the base, fig. 244.

121. ‘Tongue-shaped, (/inguiforme), when a long
compressed leaf ends in a round point.

122. ‘Three-sided, (¢riquetrum), when the leaf is
bounded by three narrow sides, and is at the same
time long.

123. Deltoid, (delteides), when a thick leaf is
bounded by three broad surfaces, and is at the
some time fhort, fig. 231.

124. Four-cornered, (setragonum), when a leat,
long in proportion, 1s bounded by four narrow sur-
i as in the Pinus nigra.

25. Warty, (verrucosum), when short, fleshy
eh are truncated, and stand in thick heaps, as in
some Euphorbia, fig. 228

126. Hook-shaped, Ain tianos when a fleshy
leaf is flat above, compressed. at the sides, and
bent back at the point, fig. 280%.

E. In respect of Situation and Position.
127. Opposite, (jolie opposita), § 13; No. 10;
198. Alternate, (alierna), § 13; No.9; fig. 23.
129. Scattered, (sparsa), when the leaves stand
thick on the stem, without any order.

AVES
* All these leaves, from Nos. 111 to 126, are thick and
fleshy; only Nos. r12, 122 and £24 are sometimes in certain
plants membranaceous,

130. Crowd-

TERMINOLOGY. 44

130. Crowded, (conferta s. approximata), -when
the leaves stand so close together that the stem can-
not be seen. |

131. Remote, (remota), when the leaves are se-
parated on the stem by certain interstices. |

182. Three together, (éerna), when three leaves
stand round the stem: there are sometimes four,
five, six, seven, eight, &c. guaferna, quina, sena,
septena, octona, &c. |

133. Star-like, (stellata s. werticillata), when seve-
ral leaves stand round the stem at certain at
as in ladies bed-ftraw; Galium, &c. fig.

134, Tufted, (fasciculata), when a ee of
leaves stand on one point, as in the larch, Pinus
Jarix, Celastrus buwifolius, fig.. 14.

135. Two rowed, (disticha), when leaves are so
placed on the stem that they stand on one plane, as
in the pitch fir, Pinus picea, Lonicera symphoricarpos.

136. Decussated, (decussata), when the stem its
whole length is set round with four rows of leaves,
and at del branch, when one looks perpendicularly
down upon it, the leaves seem to form a cross, as in
Veronica decussata. |

137. Imbricated, (imbricata), when one leaf lies
over another as the tiles upon a roof, fig. 229. Of
this there are the following kinds.

a, Bifariously: ii enteds (bifariam imbricata),

when the leaves are ‘so laid upon one ancther
that they form but two rows longitudinally
on the stem.

B. eee imbricata, three rows.

» Quadrifariam imbricata, © ec. four rows, &c.

FF. In

49 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

PE. In respect of Insertion.

138. Petiolated, (petiolatum), when a leaf is fur-
nished with a foot-stalk. :

139. Palaceous, (palaceum), when the foot-stalk
is attached to the margin.

140. Peltated, (peltatum), when the foot-stalk 1s
imserted into the middle of the leaf, fig. 1. |

141. Sessile, (sessi/e), when the leaf is attached
to the stem without any foot-stalk, fig. 29.

142. Decurrent, (decurrens), when the foliaceous
substance of a sessile leaf runs down along the
stem.

143. Clasping the stem, (amplexicaule), when a
sessile leaf. is heart-shaped at the base, and with.
both lobes embraces the stem.

144. Connate, (connatum), when opposite, and
sessile leaves are joined at their base.

N. A perfoliated leaf, (folium perfoliatum), is al-
ready described in § 13, No. 46..

G. In respect of Positign.

145. Appressed, (adpressum), when the leaf turns
up and lays its upper surface to the stem.

146, Erect, (erectum s. semiverticale), when the
leaf is directed upwards, and makes, with the stem,
a very acute angle.

i47. Vertical, (verticale), which stands quite up-
right, and thus makes with the horizon a right
angle.

148, Bent sideways, (adversum), when the mar-
ein of ‘a vertical leaf is turned towards the stem.

149, Spread.

‘TERMINOLOGY. 48

149. Spreading, (patens), which goes off from
the stem in an acute angle. |

150. Bent in, (énflexum s. incurvum), when an
upright leaf is bent in at its point towards the stem.

151. Oblique, (obliqguum), when the base of the
leaf stands upwards, and the point is turned towards
the ‘horizon, but the margin of the point towards
the ground.

152. Horizontal, (Aorizontale), when the upper
surface of the leaf makes with the stem a right
angle.

153. Bent down, (reclinatum s. reflexum), when
the leaf stands with its point bent towards the earth.

154 Bent back, (revolutum), when the leaf is
bent outwards, and its point from the stem.

155. Hanging down, (dependens), when the base
is turned to the zenith, and the point towards the
ground. j

156. Rooting, (radicans), when the leaf strikes
roots. :

157. Swimming, (natans), when the leaf swims
on the surface of water, as in Nymphea alba.

158. Immersed, (demersum), when the leaves are
found under water,

& 28...

In the descriptions of Leaves, the following are
still to be marked: When a leaf does not perfectly
answer to the figure it comes nearest to, the word
sub 18 to be used, e. g. subcordatum, subovatum, sub-

: serratum.,

£4 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

serratum, &c. a nearly heart-shaped leaf, an almost
ovate leaf, a leaf somewhat serrated, &c. When
the leaf answers the description, but seems to be
inverted, that is, that the apex resembles what the
base should be, and the base 1s like what the apex
should be, we use the word od, e. g. obovatum, ng.

14. ebcordatum, 5c.

With regard to the particular parts of leaves, we
have still to notice,

1. The lobe, ia the segment of a leaf which
is round at the apex, as in Acer.

2, The segment, (/acinia), the segment of a leaf
that runs into an angle at the point, and is uneven.

3. The little leaf, (foliolum), the little leaves that
make part of a digitated, quinate, &c. leaf, are call-
ed foliola or leafets.

4, The leaf of a bi-pimnated leaf, (pinna), each
simply pinnated leaf of a bi-pinnated leaf is called
pina.

5. The leafet of a pinnated leaf, (pinnula), means

1e of the leafets of which the pinnated leaf is com-
posed.

6, ‘Fwo-paired pinnated, (pinnatum bisugum), when.
the pinnated leat has only two pair of opposite leaves,
(trijugum), when it has three pair, eernigun,
when it has four pair, &c,

Te Angle, (angulus), xespects the point of a la-
cinia or seement.

8. Indentation, (s/nus), respects the hollow in-
terstice between the segments of the leaf when it is

round,

Each

TERMINOLOGY. ~ - 4.5

Each of these parts is, in accurate description, to
e e . ~ (pm i
be considered as a single leaf, im respect of suriaces
<, EAS = nik Q,
margin, apex, base*, Wc.

G 24.

To leaves belongs likewise the term rRoNnD,

(frons), which is peculiar to the palms, ferns and
lichens. Ifis defined like the leaves, fig. 3, 1).

But the following terms ave likewise applicable
to lichens, though not to leaves.

1. Powdery, (pulverulenta), which consists of a
quantity of fine dust or powder.

Crustaceous, ee ustacea), which looks like a
leaf, but consists of small crusts inne upeh one
another. !

8. Star-like, (stellata), which spreads from the
centre equally to all sides, fig. 3.

4, Leathery, (coricea), which is of a firm tough
substance, fig. 226.

5. Thread-like, ( filamentosa), which i
of fine threads.

In the palms two kinds of fronds are distinguisl-
ed.

1. Fan-like, ( flabelliformis); this is more or less
of a circular form; and from the point to the base

2
5
g
‘s

* Ina simply pinnated leaf each leafet ts called prnnula,
or sometimes fohofum; and only in doubly pinnated leaves
do we observe the differences marked above in Nos. 4 and s.
Linneeus, in some species of the genus Mimosa which have
doubly pinnated leaves, calls each simply pinnated leaf of
a doubly pinnated one, pina partialis, and each léafet, prnna
propria, or simply pinna.

het @
B

4 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

is divided into numerous small lobes which lie close
upon one another, and between which there is ofteri
a thread. |

2. Pinnated, (pinnata), a frons which is formed
hke a pinnated leaf, § 22. No. 97. |

§ 25.

The leaves of mosses are in their structure not
different from those of plants. No compound leaves
have been observed in them, and, in very few, deep
incisures. The cloathing of the leaves is either
smooth (g/abrum), or hairy ( pilosum), and then there
is commonly only a hair at the point of each leaf.
Cartilaginous or succulent leaves have not yet been |
discovered among them. ‘The leaves are generally
sessile ; none with foot- stalks, except in one species,
have yet been found.

The leaves of the Musci hepatici are distinguished
by the same terms with other plants, except com-
pound leaves, which are wanting tothem. When
the leaves of the Musci hepatici et frondosi have
very deep lacinie, they are not called /folia but
frondes.

§ 26.

Under the name of Props, (fulcra), we under-
stand those parts which differ from the stem, leaves,
yoot and flower: but serve for keeping the plant
erect, for its clothing, defence, or other purposes.
Such are the following: Ramentum, Bractea, Va-
gina, Spatha, Ochrea, Ascidium, Ampulla, Ligula,

Invo-

TERMINOLOGY. 43

Involucrum, Volva, Annulus, Pileus, Indusium,
Cirrhus, Gemma, Bulbus, Propago, Gongylus,
Glandula, Spina, Aculeus, Arista, Pilus.

§ 27.

Sripues, (Stipul@), are small leaves that appear
on the stem in place of the foot-stalks of the leaves.
They are sometimes of a quite different shape from
the proper leaves, but sometimes no way different,
except in situation and size. ‘They may be distin-
euished by the following terms. _ |

1. Double, (geming), when two are present, which
always stand opposite ; fig. 27, 30, 32.

2. Solitary, (solitari@), when a single stipule.
stands upon one side of the leaf footstalk.

3. Lateral, (Jaterales), when they stand at the
erigin of the petiolus, fig 27, 30, 32.

4 Under the petiolus, (extrafoliacee), when they
stand somewhat under the origin of the petiolus.

5. Above the petiolus, (intrafoliacee), when they
stand somewhat above the originof the petiolus.

6. Opposite to the petiole, (oppositifolia), when
in leaves placed alternately these stipulz stand in
the place of the origin of the petiole, but on the
ether side of the stem.

7. Caducous, (caduce), when they fall off soon
after their evolution, as in the hazle, Corylus Avel/-
lana.

8. Deciduous, (decidu@), when they fall off, a
short while before the leaves, or a considerable time
after their appearance.

9, Abid-

48 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

2. Abiding, (persistentes), when they fall or
wither along with the leaves, or after them*.

§ 28.

The RAMENT (ramentum), is a small, often bristle-
shaped leafet, that is oblong, thin, and more or less
ef a brown colour; sometimes placed, like the sti-
pula, in the angles of the petiole, but sometimes like-
wise, without any order, on the stem. It ap-
pears on all trees when their buds open, and falls
soon after. On the oak, fig. 289. it stands like the
stipulz ; on the Scots fir, Pinus sy/vestris, it | Is soon
eee.

When the stem of a plant is covered with fine
dry scales, that have the appearance of the Ramen:
tum, it is properly called a ramentaceous stem, (cau-
lis ramentaceus ).

§ 29.

The FLORAL LEAVES, (Gractee@), are leaves that
tand near or between the flowers, and in general
are of a different shape and colour from the other
leaves, fig. 33, 44, ‘They differ in respect of dura-
tion like the stipulze, that is, they are either cadu-

* In form, the stipule are very different, and what we have
said with regard to that of the proper leaves may be applied
to them, i in respect of outline, apex, base, margin and sur-
face. ‘They are in general sessile, (sessz/es), seldom connate,
(connatae), and still seldomer petiolated, (petio/atae s. pedicel-
fatae). They are often marked with a dark brown spot, as in
Vicia sativa, and then they are called sphace/atae.

cous,

TERMINOLOGY: 49

cous; deciduous or persistent. The lime tree, Tilia
europea, aftords an excellent example of the Brac-
tex. When they are of another colour than green,
they are said to be coloured, (coloratee). On the
top of many | flowers there are several of these brac-
te, in which case they are called a tuft, (coma.)
Examples of this we have in the crown imperial,
Fritillaria impe -rialis, the pine apple, Bromelia Anan-

oa
§ 90

The SHEATH, (vagina), is the prolongation of a
leaf, which rolls itself round the stem, and thts
forms a cylinder, | to the opening of which the leaf
1s attached, as in Polygonum, and all the Grasses.
When this sheath is very short, and on the upper
part of it there is nothing remarkable, it is called a
sheathing leat, ( folium vaginatum). ‘The vagina is
also described aceording to its surface, § 6.

G 31.

The SPATHE, (spatha), is an cblong leaf, which
surrounds the’ stem with its base, and serves for a
covering to flowers before they blow; but after the
flowers are unfolded it stands at a greater or less
distance from them. It i is common to all palms, to
most lilies and arums. Of it there are the following
kinds.

1. Univalve, (univalvis), when it consists bus ot
one leaf, as in Arum maculatum, fig. 41.

2, Bivalve, (bivalvis), when two leaves stand op-

D posite

5 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

posite to each other, as in the red water soldier,
Stratiotes aloides.

3. Vague, (vaga), when there is not. only a large.
common vagina, but hkewise separate vagine for
each particular division of the flower stem,, and for
each particular flower, | |

4, Halved, (dimidiata), , the, same with univalye,
only the flowers are covered but on. one, side.

5. One-flowered, two-flowered, &c. many-flowered
(uni-bi-multiflora), when it. includes. one, or more
flowers. |

6. Withering, (marcescens ),. when, 1t. withers at
flowering, or a short while before...

7. Permanent, ( persistens), when it remains un-
changed till the fruit ripens.

e132,

Fhe rouy, (ochrea)y is a. leaf-hke body, which
surrounds the branches of the flower-stalk in some
erasses, in the manner of a cylindrical. sheath. This
is chielly to be observed in the genus Cyperus,
fig, 291. ‘The margin of it is various, and affords
ihe following diversities.

Ie Deeded (truncata), when. the mar gin 1s
even, as if it had been cut off.

2. Oblique, (obligua), when the margin -is some-
what lengthened out on one side.

3. Foliaceous, (foliacea), when. the roll ends im a
short, linear, or subulated leaf.

It is further distinguished according to its surface,
as in § 6. |

§ 3 Oe The

TERMINOLOGY. a

§ 33.

The BoTTuE, (aicidium), is a particular foliaceous
body that is cylindrical and hollow, and often has
its mouth furnished with a complete cover; which
opens occasionally. This body generally contains
pure water. It is either sitting, (sessi/e), or support-
ed on a foot-stalk, ( petiolatum), and is situated at
the extremity of a leaf. The latter is found in the
Nepenthes distillatoria, fig. 28, the former in Sarra-
cenia.
In two genera, namely the Ascium and Ruyschia,
there are bracteze which have the appearance of an
Ascidium, and are therefore called Bractez ascidi-
formes,. fig. 117, 121.

§ 34.
The BLADDER, (ampulla), is & round, hollow,
closed body, that is found at the roots of some
water-plants, as Utricularia, Aldrovanda, &c. fig.288.

§ 35.

The strap, (/igula), is a membranaceous, small,
transparent leafet, which is situated on the margin.
of the vagina, and at the base of the leaf. It is only
proper to the Grasses, fig. 26. It affords the follow-
Ing varieties. |

1. Intire, (integra), when it has no segments.

2. Bifid, (bifda), when it is divided at the apex.

3. Yorn, (/acera), when it is irregularly, as it
were, torn on the margin.

D2 4, Fringed

$2 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

4, Fringed, (ciliata), when the margin is set witlt
short, projecting hairs.

5. Truncated, (truncata), when the upper part
terminates in a transverse line.

6. Pointed, (acuta), that has a short acute point.

7. Acuminated, (acuminata), that has a long proc
jecting point.

8. Very short, (decurrens), that is hardly visible,
and runs down the inside of the vagina.

§ 36.

The invVOLUCRE, (involucrum), consists of seve-
ral leaves that differ in form from the proper leaves
of the plant; they surround one or several flowers
dnd enclose them before they unfold. ‘The involu-
crum is particularly found in the umbelliferous
ee § 59. ‘There are several varieties of it, viz«

- Common, (wniversale), which incloses all the
joie fig. 36.

3. Halved, (dimidiatum), which surrounds only
half of the stem.

4, Hanging, (dependens), whien all the leafets
hang down, as in Aethusa Cynapium.

5. Two, three, four, or many-leaved, (di, tri, te-
tra, or polyphyllum), that consists of two or more
leafets*.

* The Invofucrum has sometimes the appearance of a Ca-
byx, § 67, and then is said to be calyciform, (ca/jezforme), as in;
the liverwort, Anemone hepatica. The flower-stalk, § 17, im
some species of this genus, as in Anemone pratensis, is sur~
rounded by an Involucrum, and is then called pedunculus inva-
hacratus.

§ 37. The

TERMINOLOGY. — [ 83

§ 37.

The rune1 differ so much in external appear-
ance from other plants, that their parts cannot be
compared with them. ‘The principal parts are the
Volva, Annulus and Pileus.

The wraprer, (volva), isa thick, and, in general,
fleshy membrane, that envelopes the fungus in its
young and unexpanded state, and when it is full
grown remains close upon the ground. It has been
considered as a part of the flower, but erroneously.
In some fungi, as in the pufi-ball, Lycoperdon ste/-
latum, fig. ‘7. it is deeply cut, and is then called
star-like, (stellata) ; in others it is double, (duplex).

§ 38.

The rine, (annulus), is a thin membrane that is
attached to the stalk, and encompasses it like a ring.
When the fungus is young, this membrane is con-
nected with the pileus, but afterwards separates from
it. There are the following varieties of the an-
nulus.

1. Upright, (erectus), when the ring is fixed be-
low, but free above, fig. 4.

2. Inverted, (inversus), when the ring is fixed
above, but free below, so that itis bell-shaped and
hangs down, as in Agaricus mappa.

5. Sitting, (sessilis), when, as in the above species,
it is always attached by one side.

4. Moveable, (qobilis), when the ring can be
pushed up and down, as in Agaricus antiquatus.

4 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

5. Permanent, (persistens), when it is found dur-
ing the whole existence of the fungus.

6. Fugacious, ( fugax), when at the perfect deve-
fopement of the fungus the ring disappears.

7. Cobweb-like, (arachnoideus), when the ring is
composed of a very white web. Rings of this kind
are often very evanescent*.

§ 39. ;

The cap, (ileus), is the top of the fungus, in
general shaped like a plate or bonnet, and supported
by the stalk, (sties), In this body are situated the
organs of generation. ‘There are the following kinds
of it.

1, Flat, (planus), forming a plane expansion,
fig. (223.2947 and 225:

2. Round, (convexus), which is convex above.

8. Hollow, (conmcavus), where there 1s a depres-
sion on the upper surface, fig. 6.

4. Bossed, (umbonatus), when there is a promi-
nent point in the centre, fig. 4.

5. Bell-shaped, (campanulatus), when it 1s very
convex above, and spreads wide below hke a bell,
as in Agaricus fimetarius. |

G. Viscid, (viscidus), when the upper surface 1s
covered with a clammy exudation.

* The Ring is properly a prolongation of the membrane
of the pileus, part of which remains upon the stalk; but in
some fungi it does not separate from the rim of the pileus, but
from the stalk, and remains attached to the aia in longer
or shorter portions according to the species. ‘

by @ Vie
fo WCALyV,

TERMINOLOGY. 35

7. Scaly, (squamosus),. when it 1s covered above
with many imbricated scales of a different colour
from its own, as in Agaricus muscarius.
8. Squarrose, (squarrosus), when the scales stand
up from the surface, fig. 4.
9. Halved, (dimidiatus), when it forms only half
the figure of a plate, and appears to have one side
taken off; as in Hydnum auriscalpium.
10. Stipitate, (stipitatus), when it is supported by
a stalk, § 19.
11. Sitting, (sessilis s..acaulis), when it is not sup-
ported by a stalk.
The pileus of, the fungi has likewise parts peculiar
to it, which must be carsfully observed, such as the
Umbo, Lamella, Porus, Aculeus s. Echinus and Papille.
a. Lhe boss, (wmbo), is the centre of the pileus,
which, is somewhat raised.. This umbo is
eiten present, even in a concave pileus.
B. The gills, Wamelle), are the thin foliaceaus
membranes on the underside of the mush-
room. The gills contain the capsules of the
seed, and are peculiar to the genus Agaricus.
fig: 225, ‘The Lamelle are
a. Equal, (equales), when all the gills reach
from the stalk, to the margin. “

b. Unequal, Gneguales s. interrupte), when
some reach from the stalk to the rim, while
others go only half way, either from the
stalk or from the rim.

This eee of the gills is distinguished into

‘Two-rowed, (diseriales ), ae a long and
short gill are alternate.

D4 4, Three-

86 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

.. Three-rowed, (triseriales), when twe shora
cills stand between two long ones.

c. Br anched, (ramosa), when several gills
unite ia one.

d. Decurrent, (decurrentes), when the gills

run down the stalk.

e. Venous, (venose), when the gills are so
small that they appear to be only raised
veins, as in Agaricus chantarellus.

The pores, ( oy when on the under side

wee the pileus there are very small holes, as

if made with the point of a needle, fig. 293.

These are peculiar to the Boleti. )

9. The prickles, (aeulet S. echini), ' are raised pro-
jecting points, in which, as in the pores, are
contained the or gans of generation. They
are peculiar to the genus Hydnum, fig. 224.

«. The warts, ( papilla), are small, rela pro-
tuberances that appear on the under surface,
and likewise contain the organs of genera,
tion*.

§ 40.

The cover, (indusium), in the Filices is a thin
membrane which covers the seeds or the flowers.
It pr esents the following kinds :

* Some fungi have a very different appearance; some want
the pileus, or are of a singular form without stalk. Their
figure must therefore be described, as whether they are round,
( globosus), fig. 7) cup- “shaped RO gieuaniais s. seyphiformis),
fig. 254, Sco |

1. Flat,

TERMINOLOGY. | S*

i. Flat; (planum), when the thin membrane fies
flat upon the seeds, as in Polypedium.

2. Peltated, (peltatum), when this thin membrane
is circular; and below, in the middle, is attached to
the seeds by a small thread.

3 Horn-like, (corniculatum), when this thin mem-
br ane is cylindrical and hollow, and incloses the
flowers and seeds, asin Equisetum. In fig. 11, there
are four of these horn-like indusia to be Kise evell *

| § 4.

The 1 TENDRIL, (cirrhus), 1s a thread-like body,
which serves for attaching plants to some support.
Climbing plants, (vegetabilia scandentia), are furnish-
ed with these. ‘They are in general spiral, as in the
Vine, Vitis vinifera, fig. 27. The species are as fol-
lows ;

1. Axillary, (axdllares), when they rise from the
axilla of the leaves, fig. 27.

2; Foliar, (foliares), when they spring out of the
points of the leaves.

3. Petiolar, ( petiolares), when the cirrhi stand on
the point of the common foot-stalk of a compound
leat.

4, Peduncular, ( pedunculares), when they rise out
of the foot-stalk of the flower.

5. Simple, (simplex), when a cirrhus is not divid-
ed. earn |

* The celebrated Dr. Smith of London has well distin«
guished the genera of the Filices by aN way in which the in-
dustum bursts.

4 6. Two,

58 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

6. ‘Two, three, many-branched. (bi, tri, multifidus),
when a cirrhus branches out into two, three, or
more parts.

7. Convolute, (convolutus), when the cirrhus re-
-gularly winds itself reund a prop.

8. Revolute, (revolutus), when the cirrhus nands
itself irregularly, sometimes to this side, sometimes
to that*,

§ 49.

The pup, (gemma), is that part of a plant which
contains the embryo of the leaves and flowers. All
plants are not furnished with buds, but only such as
erow in cold climates. ‘They either inclose leaves
alone, (foliifere); or leaves and flowers in separate
buds, (foliifere et florifere distinct) ; or leaves and
female flowers, (folufere et florifere feminee) ;
Jeaves and male flowers, (foliifere et florifere mas-
cule); or leaves and hermaphrodite flowers, ( folii-
fere et florifere bermaphrodita) ; or lastly, leaves and
lowers in one bud, ( foliifero-florifere). The open-
mg of the buds, and the appearance of the leaves, is
called Foliation, (/foliatio). This is occasioned by
the fall of the outer covers, which consist of small
imbricated scales. In plants that have no buds, the
foliation takes place immediately from the bark. “In
different plants at foliation, the young leavés are va-

* When a simple leaf has a cirrhus at its apex, it is called
folium cirrhosum, asin Gloriosa superba, Flagellaria zsdica, &c.
When a pinnated leaf has a cirrhus at its apex, as in most le-
guminous plants, it is called folium pinnatum cirrbosum, No. 34

riously

YER MINOLOGY. 5G

viously folded up. When an opening bud is cut
over horizontally, the following varieties appear :

1. Involute, (involuta), when the edges of the
leaves are turned in, as in the hop, Humulus dupulus
fig. 251, 259, 260.

2. Revolute, (revoluta), when the edges of the
leaves are rolled outwards, as in the willows, (Sa-
lices), fig. 252, 262.

3. Obvolute, (ebvoluta), when two simply closed
leaves, without being rolled, embrace the half of
each other, asin sage, Salvia officinalis, fig. 256.

4, Convolute, (convoluta), when the leaves are
rolled up spirally, as in the plumb, Prunus domestica,
apricot, Prunus armeniaca, fig. 250, 258,

& Riding, (eguitans), when several leaves which
lie parallel, embrace the whole of one another, as in
the lilac, Syringa vulgaris, fig. 254, 255, 263, 264.

6. Conduplicate, (conduplicata), when the sides of
the leaves lie parallel to one another, asin the beech,
Fagus sylvatica, fig. 253.

7. Plaited, (plicata), when the leaves are regu-
larly folded, as in the birch, Betula alba, fig. 257.

8. Bent down, (reclinata), when the points of the
young leaves hang down, as in Arum, Aconitum.

9. Circinal, (circinata), when the whole leaf, fromm
the point to the base, is rolled up, so that the out.
side is within, and the inside without, as in all the
Pilices, fig. 15, | i

N, When the leaves are opposite, the figure is
often doubled, as in fig. 258, 259, €68, 262.

ANG mi kt
§'43. The

65 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

§ 43.

The pus, (bu/bus), is, properly speaking, a bud
under ground. Of this there are the following kinds :

1. Sealy, (squamuosus), composed of scales, as in
the bulbiferous lily, Liltum bulbiferum, fig. 19.

2. Coated, (tunicatus), consisting of concentric
coats or skins, as in the common onion, Alium Cepa,
fic. 17.

3. Net-like, (reticulatus), consisting of concentric
coats, like close net-work, as in the Alhum wic-
goriale. :

4. Solid, (solidus), consisting of a solid substance,
as in the Colchicum autumnale.

5. Lateral, (/ateralis), where the leaves do not, as
3s commonly the case, rise from the middle, but from
the side; as in Allium ampeloprasum.

6. Doubled, (duplicatus), when two are always
found together, as in Fritillarta pyrenaica. |

7. Compound, (compositus), when several bulbs
stand together, as in Allium nigrum*.

§ 44.

The moss-Bupb, ( propago), is a roundish or long;
ish body, proceeding from the mother plant, and
becoming itself a new one, asin the mosses. Lin-
nzeus considers this as the seed. In the Musci hepa-
tici this organ is spherical. The Marchantia bears

* The bulb is likewise described according to its shape as
round, oval, &c. Seein § 11. the difference between < tu-
berous root and a bulb,

a small

TERMINOLOGY: G1

a small cup, (scyphus), in which the propago is con-
tained.

§ 45.

The KNoT, (Gongylus), is around, hard body,
which falls off upon the death of the mother-plant,
and becomes a new one. An example of this is ob-
served in the Fuci. -

§ 46.

A GLAND, —— is a round body that serves
for transpiration and secretion. The glands are
generally situated on the leaves or stems. They
are,

ie Sitting, (sessiles), when they sit close upon the
leaf, as in Cassia marylandica.

2. Petiolate, (petiolate), when they are raised
upon a little stalk, as in the sun-dew, Drosera.

NS 47.

A THORN, (spina), is a strong projecting spine,
that rises in the interior of the plant, and therefore
does not come off with the bark; as in the sloe,
Prunus spinosa. ‘The kinds are,

1. Terminal, (terminalis), when it is situated at
the point of a branch.

2. Axillary, (axillaris), cil it is situated at the
side or origin of the branch.

3. Simple, (simplex), consisting of a single thorn.

4, Divided, (divisa), divided at the point.

EAN bye setele

6 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

5. Branched, (ramosa), separated into’ severa!
branches*.

6 48.

A, PRICKLE, (aculeus), is a persistent production
ihat issues from the bark, and comes away with it,
as in the rose, Rosa centifolia. Of it there are the
following kinds:

I. Straight, (recti), when the prickles are not
Dents)"

2. Incurved, (incurvi), when they are curved up-
wards.

8. Recurved, (recurvi), when they are bent to:
wards the ground.

A, Solitary, (solitarii), when they stand ata dis-
#ance.

5. Doubled, (geminati), when two prickles stand
together.

_ 6. Palmated, (palmati), when several hang to-
gether, as in the barberry, Berberis vulgaris.

A
HS
Se;

The Awn, (47. oe is a pointed beard, that sits
on the flower of the grasses. It is,

I. Naked, (nuda), not hairy, fig, 101, 103.

2, Feathered, (plumosa), set with fine aes hairs,
as in the Stipa pennata. -

Straight, (recta), when quite straight, fig. 101,
103.

* The origin of the thorn will be more particularly consi-
dered wfloniards in the Physiology.

3 Geni-

“

TERMINOLOGY. 65

4, Geniculated, (geniculata), that has a joint in the
middle by which it is bent, asin the common oat,
Avena sativa. |

5. Bent, (recurvata); when bent in the form of a
bow.

6. Twisted, (oriilis), when it is spirally twisted,
or forms,a serpentine line.

7. Terminal, (terminalis), when situated on the
point of the glume. § 65.

8. Dorsal, (dorsalis), when mserted behind the
apex or on the back of the glume.

§ 50.

The HAIR, (pilus), is a fine slender body, some-
times long, sometimes short; hairs are organs of
transpiration, and serve for the covering of plants.
The various divisions of hairs we have already men-
tioned in § 6. ‘The kinds are,

4, Simple, (simplices), that are not divided, but
are of an equal filiform appearance.

2. Awl-shaped, (subulati), short, strong hairs,
_ that are thickest at the root, as those on the borage,
Borago officinalis.

3. Needle-shaped, (aciculares), very sharp pointed
like the last, but at their base there is an enlarge-
ment. .

4. Bulbous, (bu/bosi), that have a round bulb-like
appendage at the base, as in Centaurea Jacea.

8, Hook-shaped, (wncinati), that are bent like a
hook, as in Scabiosa succisa, and various orasses.

6. Knobbed, (nodosi), that hate regular knobs
with interstices between them,

4. Arti-

64 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &Cc:

7. Articulated, (articulati), divided into regular
and somewhat contracted members, so as to have
tle appearance of the antenne of some insects, as in
Veronica aphylla, Lamium purpureum, Sonchus olera-
EEUS. |

8, Denticulated, (denticulati), set on one side as.
it were with small teeth.

9. Pubescent, ( pubescentes), covered with \ 18 mi.
nute hairs, as in Hieracium pilosella.

10: Bhumoce, ( plumosi), that are thickly covered
with long and very fine hairs, so that they resemble
a feather, as in Hieracium wndulatum.

11. Forked, ( furcati), that at the point are di-
vided like a fork, as in the Apargia hispida.
v1 2eBranched,).( ramosi), that divide irregularly
into branches, as in the gooseberry, Ribes grossus

13. Stellated, (srel/ati), when several hairs rise
from one root, press close upon one another, and
take the appearance of a star, as in Alyssum mon-
fanum, and various species of Solanum.

The hair is still further distinguished, according :
to its rigidity and point.

a. Hair, (pilus), which is ‘straight with some
degree of stiffness.

b. aveol (Jana), which i is crooked and soft.

c. Fine hair, (villus), very fine and soft. .

d. Bristle, (striga), that is very stiff.

e. Hook, (hamus), that is stiff, and hooked 2 at

the point.

af Double

TERMINOLOGY: 65

fi. Double hook, (glochis), that is stiff, divided
at the point; and bent back towards both
sides*.
§ 51.

_ Before we proceed to the description of the par-
ticular parts of the flower, it is necssary to treat of
the flower-stem, or, in other words, of the mode of
flowering or inflorescence, (inflorescentia). The fol-
lowing kinds of inflorescence have been ican :
The Whirl (verticillus), the Head (capitulum), t
Ear (spicula), the Spike (spica), the Raceme pas
mus), the Corynibus, the Fasciculus, the Umbel, (um-=
bella), the Cyme (cyma); the Panicle (panicula), the
Thyrse (thyrsus), the Spadix, and the Catkin (amens
tum)

§ 52.

A WHIRL, (veriicillus), consists of several flowers
that encircle the stem, and stand uncovered at inter-
vals upon it. Of this there are the following kinds.

1. Sitting, (sessilis); when all the flowers sit close
to the stem without foot-stalks, as in the field-mint,
Mentha arvensis:

2. With a foot-stalk, ( pedunculatus), when the

flowers are furnished with short foot-stalks.
3. Half, (dimidiatus), when the flowers surround

* The various form of the hair here described is proper to
all the parts of a plant, and is only to be observed by a mag-
nifying glass. |

E only

O06 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

only the half of the stalk, as in balm, Melissa o//:-
cinalts.

4. Close, (confertus), when one whirl stands close
above another.

5. Distant, (distans), when the whirls stand at a
distance from one another.

6. Naked, (nudus), when no leaves or bractex
stand near the whirl.

7. Furnished with bractez, (bracteatus), when
there are floral leaves or bracteze about the whirl.

8. Six, eight, ten, or many-flowered, (sex, octo,
decem, s. multiflorus), when the whirl consists of nary
flowers.

§ 53.

A HEAD, (capitulum), is a number of flowers
standing thick upon one stalk so as to form a round
head. The flowers have either foot-stalks or sit
close. The following are varieties of this:

1. Spherical, (globosum, sphericum), when the
flowers have a perfectly round form, as in the
Gomphrena globosa, fig. 199.

2. Roundish, (subrotundum), when the head ot
flowers is nearly round, but where the length ex.
ceeds the breadth, as in clover, Trifolium pratense.

3. Conical, (conicum), when the head is long,
drawing towards a point, as in Trifolium montanum.

4. Hemispherical, (dimidiatum, s. hemispharicum),
when the head is round on one side and flat on the
other.

5. Leafy, ( foliosum), when the head 1s PHAR:
os with leaves.

6. Naked,

TERMINOLOGY. 67

6. Naked, (nudum), when it is devoid of leaves.
7. Standing on the point, (terminalis), when it
stands on the top of the stem.
8. Axillary, (axillaris), standing in the angles of
the leaves*.

654,

The gar, (spicula s. locusta), is peculiar to Grasses,
and consists of a number of flowers which sit on one
stalk, and are furnished but with one calyx. It is
generally denominated from the number of flowers
it contains. |

1. Oneflowered, (uniflora), that contains but one
flower, as in Agrostis.

2. ‘Two-flowered, (biffora), ee two flowers,
as in Aira.

8. Three-flowered, (triflora), sie

4, Many-flowered, (multiflora), that contains many
flowers, fig. 93, 101.

G55.

The spike, (spica), is a number of flowers that
surround one simple straight principal stem without
any foot-stalk, as in lavender, Lavendula spica, and
many others. ‘The kinds are, :

1. Glomerate, (glomerata), when the spike con-
sists of a spherical collection of flowers.

_* The Glomerule, (glomerulus), is properly a small head
cr a) s 1 2 r
of a very small flower, that in general appears in the angles of
the leaves, as in Amaranthus.

E 2 2, Inter-

68 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, Be.

2. Interrupted, (interrupta), when the flowers
upon the spike are interrupted by naked interstices.

3. Verticillated, (verticillata), when the flowers,
leaving naked interstices on the spike, appear on
that account to be placed in whirls.

4. Imbricated, (imbricata), when the flowers stand
so thick together that one lies upon another.

5. Distichous, (disticha), when the flowers are
arranged on the spike in two rows.

6. One-rowed, (secunda), when the flowers are
all arranged on one side of the spike, so that the
other side is naked. |
"%. Cylindrical, (cylindrica), when the spike is
equally covered with flowers both above and below.

8. Linear, (/inearis), that is very slender, and of
equal thickness.

9. Ovate, (ovata), that is thick above, more slen-
der below, and appears of an oval form.

10. Ventricose, (ventricosa), thick in the middle,
and slender at both extremities.

11. Leafy, (foliosa}, having leaves between the
flowers. _

12, Comose, (comosa), having leaves at the apex.

13. Fringed, (ciliata), having hairs between the
flowers.

14. Simple, (simplex), without branches, fig. 277.

15. Branched or compound, (ramosa vel composita),
when several spikes stand on one branched or dis
vided stalk. :

16. Conjugate, (conjugata), when two spikes,
standing on one stalk, unite at the base.

17. Bundled

TERMINOLOGY. 69

17. Bundled, (fasciculata), when several spikes,
standing on one foot-stalk, unite at the base.

18. Terminal, (terminalis), standing on the apex
of the stalk or branch.

19. Axillary, (axillaris), ne in the angles at
the origin of the leaves.

20. Lateral, (/ateralis), standing on the wood of
the former year, that is, on the place now destitute
of leaves,

61 56.

The RACEME, (racemus), that sort of peduncle to
which several pedunculated flowers are attached,
nearly of equal length, or at least where the lowest
flower-stalks are little longer than the upper. Here
follow the different kinds of Raceme.

1. One-sided, (unilateralis), when only one side
of the stem is set with flowers.

2. One-rowed, (secunda), when flower-stems are
situated round the principal stem, but the flowers
themselves are directed only to one side.

3. Limber, (/axus), when the raceme is very
pliant or flexible.

4, Stiff, (strictus), when the raceme does not
bend.

5. Simple, (simplex), when it is unbranched,
fig. 278.

6. Compound, ernie: when several single
racemes unite on one tem.

7. Conjugate, (conjugatus), when two racemes,
standing on one stem, unite at the base.

8. Naked, (nudus), without leaves or bracteze.

E 2 9. Fos

70 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

9. Foliate, (foliatus), set with leaves or bractez.

10. Erect, (erectus), standing upright.

11. Straight, (rectus), straight without bending.

12. Cernuous, (cernuus), when the apex of the
raceme is bent downwards.

13. Nodding, (nutans), when the half of the ra-
ceme is bent downwards.

14, Hanging, (pendulus), when the raceme hangs
down perpendicularly.

G57.

The coryms, (corymbus), is, properly speaking, an
erect racemus, the lower flower-stalks of which are
either branched or simple, but always so much pro-
duced as to be of equal height with the uppermost,
fig. 25, 266. |

§ 58. 7

The FAscicuz, or bundle, (fasciculus), is a num-
ber of simple foot-stalks of equal height, which arise,.
not from one point, but from several. The Fasci-
culus differs from the Corymbus in its’short flower-
stalks, and in their not being dispersed upon a
long stem. From the Umbel it differs in that the
flowers do not arise from one point. From the
Cyma it differs in that the flower-stalks are not
branched. As an example of the Fasciculus may.
be quoted Dianthus carthusianorum.

6 59.
The umberL, (umbella), consists of a number of
flower-stalks of equal leneth that rise from the point.

Tn
A

TERMINOLOGY. 71

In an Umbel the flower-stalks are called rays, (radii).
There are the following varieties of the Umbel.

1, Simple, (simplex), when the rays bear but one

flower. ;
2. Compound, (composita), when each ray of the
umbel supports a simple umbel, fig. 36. The rays
which support the simple umbels are called the
universal or genera! umbel, (wmbella universalis).
The simple umbels are called the particular or par-
tial umbels, (wmbella partialis s. umbellula).

3. Sitting, (sessilis), when the umbel has no stalk.

4, Pedunculated, (pedunculata), when it is fur-
nished with a stalk.

5. Close, (conferta), when the rays of the umbel
stand so near one another that the whole umbel. be-
comes very thick and close.

6. Distant, (rara), when the rays stand wide.

7. Poor, (depauperata), when the umbel has but
few flowers.

8. Convex, (convexa), when the middle rays are
high, but stand thick, so that the whole form a glo-
bular figure.

9. Flat, (plana), when the rays being of equal
length, the flowers form a flat surface.

| § 60.

The cymez, (cyma), consists of w number of
branched flower-stalks, with irregular branches, and
not rising from one point. It has considerable re-
semblance to the Umbel. Examples of it are found
in the elder, Sambucus zigra, and the guelder rose,

Viburnum opulus.
Wa. § 61. The

ay
©

44 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

§ 61.

T i PANICLE, (panicula), consists of a number of:
flowers that stand on unequally divided branches,
and on a long peduncle, fig. 34. ‘The kinds are,

1, Simple, (simplex), that has only undivided side-
branches.

2, Branched, (ramosa), when the branches are
again branched.

8. Much branched, (ramosissima), when the side-
branches are much divided.

4, Spreading, (patentissima), when the branches
stand wide from one another, and spread out on all
sides.

5. Crowded, (coarctata), when the branches stand
‘very close together. :

6. One-rowed, (secunda), when the branches i in-
cline all to one side.

§ 62.

The THYRSE, (thyrsus), it a condensed panicle,
whose branches are so thick that the whole has an
oval form, as in the flower of the Privet, , Ligustrum
vulgare,

§ 65.

The spapix. is peculiar to the palms, andi some
plants allied to the genus Arum. All flower-stalks
that are contained in a vagina, are called Spadix.
This organ is sometimes formed like a spike, a ra-
cemus, or panicle, and from these 3 it takes its name,
ng, 41, 42,

» G4 TRE

; TER MINOLOG ¥- 78

§ 64.

The caTkIn, (amentum s. julus), is along and
always simple stem, which is thickly covered with
scales, under which are the flowers or parts of the
flower, fig. 37. Examples of this are found in the
willows (Salices), hazle, Corylus avellana, &c.

1. Cylindrical, (cylindricum), which is equally
thick above and below.

2. Attenuated, (astenuatum), which grows thinner
and thinner to the point.

3. Slender, (gracile), which is long, but has few
scales, and also is slender in proportion to its length.

4, Ovate, (ovatum), which is thick below and
round, but grows gradually more slender to the
point. |

§ 65.

In Mosses, the flowers are of a particular form,
and there are the following different modes of infior-
escence, viz. [los gemmiformis, flos capituliformis, flos
disciformis.

1. The flower formed like a bud, ( flos gemmi-
forms), is commonly seated between the leaves of
the Moss: it has, with the assistance of a moderate
magnifying glass, or sometimes with the naked eye,
the appearance of a swollen bud.

2. The flower formed like a capitulum, ( flos. ca-
pituliformis ), is a spherical, foliaceous substance which
in Mosses appears raised on a peduncle, and is easily
distinguished from the fruit, fig. 138.

4 3. ‘The

74 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC. ,

3. The flower formed like a star, (_flos disciformis),
is a body seated at the top of the stem of mosses ; it
is flat, and furnished with broad leaves: it is con-
spicuous on the common polytrichum, Polytrichum
commune, tig. 142.

§ 66.

The coloured part which distinguishes itself by its
outward appearance, which precedes the fruit, and
contains the necessary organs of generation, is called
the FLOWER, (los). It is composed of sundry parts,
viz, the Calyx, Corolla, Nectarium, Stamina and
Pistillum.

The three first parts are not essential parts of the
flower, but the two last are indispensable in every
flower.

S 67.
The caLtyx is a general name for ali the little
leaves or envelopes, that are commonly of a green
colour, and surround the flower on the outside.

The following are species of it: Perianthium, Glu-
ma, Anthodium, Squama, and Pappus.

§ 68.

The prriantu, (Perianthium), is that species of
Calyx which immediately incloses a flower. It is,

1. Abiding, (persistens), remaining after the flower
falls off, as in the henbane, Hyoscyamus niger.

2, Deciduous, (deciduum), that falls off at the
same time with the flower, as in the lime tree, Tilia

PUrOpaa.

Be Wither-

TERMINOLOGY. 18

3, Withering, (marcescens), that withers after the
flower, but still remains for some time, and at last
drops off, as in the apricot, Prunus Armeniaca.

4. Caducous, (caducum), that falls off before the
flower, as in the poppy, Papaver somniferum.

5. Simple, (simplex).

6. Double, (duplex), when a double perianthium
encloses the flower, as in the strawberry, Fragaria
vesca, mallow, Malva rotundifolia, fig. 23, 5'7.

7. One-leaved, (monophyllum), when the perian-
thium consists of one leaf, that is, it may be divided
into equal or unequal laciniz, but all of them are
connected at the base, fig. 49, 50, 53, 72, 73, 110.

8. Two, three, four, five-leaved, (di, tri, tetra,
penta, &c. phyllum, many-leaved, (polyphyllum), when
it consists of two or more foliola, fig. 148.

9. Dentated, (dentatum), when it has at the mar-
sin short segments or indentations, but which are
not deeper at most than the fourth part of the whole
perianth. According to the number of these seg-
ments the perianth 1s, bi, tri, quadri, quinque, &c.
or multidentatum, with two, three, four, five, or many
segments.

10. Cleft, ( fissum), when the perianthium is di-
vided into laciniz, but which reach only to the
middle. It is often bi, tri, quadri, &c. multifidum.

11, Parted, (partitum), when the perianth is di-
vided down to the base. ‘These divisions are also
named according to their number, as i, tri, Guadrl
yon Re esti

. Labiated or bilabiated. Wesiarie s. bilabiatum),
W ce the perianth is deeply divided into two lacinie,

both

16 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

both of which are dentated, as in garden sage, Salvia
officinalis, fig. 73.

13. Intire, (integrum), when a monophyllous pe-
rianth is short, round at the base, and intire on the
margin, fig. 118.

14, Urceolated, (urceolatum), when a monophyl-
lous perianth is short, round at the base, and intire
on the margin, fig. 118.

15. Shut, (clausum), when a polyphyllous or di-
vided perianth applies itself closely to the corolla.

16. Tubular, (tubulosum), when a divided, cleft, or
indented perianth, at its origin, 1s cylindrical and
forms a tube. |

17. Spreading, (patens), when in a monophyllous
or polyphyllous perianth, the foliola or lacinize stand
quite open. '

18. Reflected, (reflexum), when either the seg-
ments or laciniz in monophyllous perianths, or the
foliola in polyphyllous, are bent back.

19. Inflated, (cnflatum), when the perianth is hol.
low, and bellies out,

20. Abbreviated, (abbreviatum), when the calyx,
is much shorter than the corolla.

21. Coloured, (coloratum), when the perianth is
of another colour than green*.

* In a monophyllous Perianth, the divisions are either call-
ed laciniz, or segments (dentes), and these segments are distin-
guished by being obtuse (obtusus), acute (acutus), acuminated,
(acuminatus), thorny (spinosus), &c. In the polyphyllous pe-
rianths, the particular pieces are called leafets (fo/o/a), and.
they are described according to their form. As to the figure
of the Calyx and its parts, see the definitions in § 6.

§ 69. The

TERMINOLOGY:

EN i
=F

§ 69.

‘The cums, (gluma), is the peculiar calyx of the
Grasses. It contains in general several flowers.
The leaves of which it consists are called valves,
(valuug). The kinds are as follows :

1. Univalve, (wnivalvis), that consists of only one
valve, as in the ray grass, Lolium perenne.

2. Bivalve, (bivalvis), with two valves, as in most
Grasses, fig. 96, 977, 102, 104.

3. Trivalve, (trivalvis), when there are three
valves, as in Panicum miliaceum.

4, Multivalve, (multivalvis), that is composed of
many valves.

5. Coloured, (colorata), that is of another colour
than green*.

§ 70.

The CoMMON PERIANTHIUM, (anthodium), is a
calyx which contains a great number of flowers, in
such a manner as that these flowers appear to form
ut one, a sin dandelion, Leontodon Taraxacum, blue

* The corolla of the Grasses, which is inclosed in the glu-
ma, is also called gluma, because it hardly differs in appear-
ance from the calyx, and, properly speaking, is but an interior
calyxs In accurate description, the word calyx or corolla is
prefixed to gluma. The gluma of the corolla 1s somewhat
finer than that of the calyx, and the inner valve is membrana-
ceous, but the outer green. This green valve is either without
an arista (mutica), or awned (aristata). The awn, (arista),
$ 49, is only found on the corolla of Grasses, fig. 103.

bottle,

78 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

bottle, Centaurea Cyanus, sunflower, Helianthus az-
nuus, &c. The kinds are,

1. One-leaved, (monophyllum), that consists but of
one leaf, united at the base, but divided at top.

2, Many-leaved, (polyphyllus), that is compound-
ed of several leaves,

3. Simple, (simplex), when the flowers are sur-
rounded by a single row of leaves, fig. 221.

4, Equal, (eguale), when in a simple perianth the
leaves are of equal length.

5. Scaly or imbricated, (squamosum s. imbricatum).
when the common perianth consists of closely im-
bricated foliola, fig.-59, 76.

6. Squarrose, (squarrosum), when the fohiola are
bent back at the points.

7. Scariose, (seariasum), when the foliola are hard
and dry: this is found in the Centaurea glastifolia.

8. Fringed, (ciliatum), when the margins of the
foliola are beset with short bristles of equal length.

9, Muricated, (muricatum), when the margins of
the foliola are set with short stiff prickles.

10. Thorny, (spinosum), -when each leafet is pro-
vided with a thorn: there are either simple thorns,
(spine simplices), or branched (ramosa), fig. 152.

11. Turbinated, (¢urbinatum), when the perianth
has quite the figure of a top, fig. 59.

12. Spherical, (globosum), when it has the form
of a perfect sphere, fig. 152.

13. Hemispherical, (hemispharicum), when it is
round below and flat above, fig. 76.

14. Cylindrical, (cylindricum), when the perianth

is round and long, as thick above as below.
15. Flat,

TERMINOLOGY. 4S

15. Flat, (planum), when the foliola of the pe-
rianth are spread out quite flat.

16. Doubled or calyculated, (auctum s. calycula-
tum), when at the base of the common perianth there
is another row of foliola that appear to form ano-
ther calyx, as in dandelion, Leontodon Taraxacum,
fig. 143, 270%.

The common perianth, (anihodium), is in general
called by Linnzeus the common calyx, (Calyx com-
munis ).

§ 71.
The foliola which cover the Catkin, § 64, serve
in place of the calyx; and behind each stand the

essential parts of the flower, ‘These foliola are
SCALES, (squame@), fig. 37 T.

§ 72. |

The pappus, is a calyx consisting of hairs, or of

a thin transparent membrane, observed only in par-
ticular flowers that are contained in a common pe-
rianth, (anthodium). ‘The pappus remains constantly
till the ripening of the seed, and we shall consider

it more fully when treating of the seed, (§ 115).
Fig. 84, 86, 87.

* The leaves of the common perianth are called leafets,

( fohola s. squamae), and in accurate description are denomi-
nated according to their outline.

¢ The foliola of the common perianth, of the catkin, of the
strobilus and other parts, are called likewise sguamae ; but the
connection always shows distincly of what we are speaking.

Bi | Sey Tae

20 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC;

§ 73:

The Mosses have a peculiar calyx, differently form:
ed from that of other plants, called pERICHAETIUM:
The flowers of Mosses are so small that they cannot
be seen without the help of a high magnifier. In
general they are of different sexes, that is; some are
iitirely male, others female flowers. ‘The calyx of
the female flower remains till the fruit is ripe and
appears at the base of the seta, (§ 21); The male.
flower is only visible with a high magnifier; and dis-
appears after the fructification is completed.

In the male flowers the calyx consists of a num-
ber of leaves, which differ from the other leaves in
being of a finer structure, and of another form.
The calyx of the female flower is best seen when
the fruit is ripe, when it is observed at the base of
the seta, fig. 140, and consists of a number of im:
bricated leaves, which are distinguished from those
of the Moss by their length or breadth. These
leaves lie thick upon one another, and the whole is
of a conical form.

§ 74.

The coroLxa is the envelope, or small leaves i in-
¢losed by the calyx, surrounding the interior parts
of the flower, and of another colour than green. It
consists either of one piece or of several ; the first is
called a monopetalous corolla, (corolla monopetala),
the last polypetalous, (corolla polypetala). ‘The pieces
it consists of are called petals, (petala).

6 75. The

TERMINOLOGY. BL

§ 75.

The MONOPETALOUS COROLLA is that which con
sists but of one piece, which, however, may be di-
vided into segments, but which must always be
intire at the base. ‘Vhe following are varieties of
this corolla.

1, Tubular, (¢ubulosa), that consists of a single
piece, hollow and of equal thickness. The small
corolla or floret, which is found included in a com-
mon perianthium is also called tubular, although it
sometimes departs from this form, fig. 60, 86, 275.

2. Club-shaped, (clavata), which forms a tube,
erowing gradually wider upwards, and narrower at
the aperture, fig. 276. :

8. Spherical, (globosa),. which is narrow above
and below, and wide in the middle, fig. 268.

4. Bell-shaped, (campanulata), that grows gra-
dually wider to the mouth, so that it has nearly the
appearance of a bell, fig. 62.

5. Cup-shaped, (cyathiformis), when a cylindrical
tube grows gradually wider from below upwards,
but the margin is upright and noi bent back or con-
tracted, fig. 273, 82.

6. Urceolated, (urceolata), when a short cylin-
drical tube extends itself into a wide surface, the
margin of which is erect, fig. 274.

7. Funnel-shaped, (infundibuliformis), when the
tube of the corolla grows gradually wide above, that
is, obversely conical, but the rim pretty flat and
turned out, fig. 269.

8. Salver-shaped, (hypocrateriformis), when the

MM) tube

$2 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

tube of the corolla is perfectly cylindrical but very
long, and the rim forms a broad expansion, Bes ‘2675
as in Phlox.

9, Wheel-shaped, (rotate), when a alindeak
tube is very short, nearly shorter than the calyx,
sometimes hardly perceptible, and its margin is
quite flat. It 1s almost the same with the foregoing,
only the tube is very short, as in shepherd’s club,
Verbascum.

10, ‘Tongue-shaped, es when the tube is:
not long, suddenly ceases, and ends in an oblong
expansion, as in the Aristolochia Clematitis, fig. 271,
and in some flowers that are contained in a common
perianthium, fig. 84.

11. Difform, (difformis), when the tube gradually
becomes wider above, and is divided into unequal
lobes, as im some corollas that are included ina
common perianthium, ¢. g. the bluebottle, Centaurea
Cyanus.

12. Ringent, (ringens),' when the margin of a
tubular corolla is divided into two parts, of which
the upper part is arched, the under oblong, and has
some resemblance to the open mouth of an animal,
as in sage, Salvia officinalis, figs 72.

13. Masked, ( personata), when both segments of
the ringent flower are closely pressed together, as in
snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus, fig. 49.

14. Bilabiate, (dilabiata), when the corolla has
two segments or lips which lie over against each
other, and which are themselves often laciniated or
cleft, fig. 272. *

15. One-lipped, (unilabiata), when in a ringent,

pcks

‘TERMINOLOGY. 83

personate, &c. corolla, the upper or under lip is
wanting, as in Teucrium, fig. 50 and 51.

§ 76.

The kinds of the MANY-PETALLED COROLLA,
Maa polypetala), are,

. Rose-like, (rosacea), when petals, which are
| eet round, and at their base have no unguis, form
a corolla, fig. 150, 195.

2. Mallow-like, (malvacea), when five petals,
which at the base are considerably attenuated, so
unite belowthat they appear to be monopetalous,
hig. 56.

3. Cross-like, (cruciata), when four petals which
are very much produced at their base, stand opposite
to one another, as in Sinapis a/ba, Brassica olera-
cea, viridis, Se. fig. 145.

4, Pink-like, (caryophyllacea), when five petals at
their base are much elongated, andstand inamonophyl-
lous calyx, asin Dianthus Caryophyllus, tc. fig. 110.

5. Lily-like, (/iliacea), when there are several pe-
tals but no calyx. In some there are only three, in
others they form a tube at the bottom. This makes
the idea somewhat indefinite ; but it ought to be re-
marked, that this kind of corolla never has a calyx,
and that it is only proper to the lilies, (§ 123),
fig. 66, 71, 146. |

6. Two, three, four, five, &c. many petalled, (di,
tri, tetra, penta, ‘Sc. polypetala), thus the corolla is
denominated according to the number of the petals.

7. Papilionaceous, (papilionacea), when four pe-
‘ale differing in figure stand together ;' to these pe-

Fe tals

j

4 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

tals the following names have been given: (for i-
stances examine the flowers of the common pea,
Pisum sativum, or vetch, Vicia sativa, fig. 105, 20.)
a. Vhe standard, (vexillum), is the uppermost
petal, which is commonly the largest, and is
somewhat cencaye, fig. 106.
‘Che two wings, (¢/@), are the two petals
which stand under the vexillum, and oppo-
site to each other on each side, fig. 107.
The keel, (carina), is the undermost petal ;
itis hollew, and stands. under the vexillum,,
and opposite to it; and contains the germen, |
with the stamina and pistillum, fig. 108.

8. Orchideous, (orchidea), is a corolla composed
of five petals, of which the undermost is long and
sometimes cleft ; the other four are arched and bent
towards one another, fig. 33.

9. Irregular, (irregularis), consisting of four or
more petals, which are of different lengths and in-
clination, so that they, do net come under the, de-
scription of the other kinds, fig, 134.

So

&

§ 77.

Vhe particular parts of the corolla have besides
appropriate names. ‘The following are those of the
MONOPETALOUS COROLLA :

1. The tube, (tubus), of a monopetalous corolla is
the under part, which is hollow, and in general of
equal thickness, All flowers of this kind of co-
rolla have a tube, except the bell-shaped, and some-
times the wheel-shaped.

2. ‘Uhe border, (/imbus), is the opening of the corol-

la,

TERMINOLOGY. 83

la, especially when it is bent back, (§ 75, No, 1—11).
The limbus is often dentated or deeply divided, and
the divisions are called,

3. Segments or lobes, (dacinia s. lobi), and they
are denominated according to their figure, number,
and situation. |

4, The helmet, (galea), 1s the upper arched la-
emia of a ringent or masked corolla, which is fur-
ther denominated according to its situation, figure,
and segments or laciniz.

5. The gape, (rictus), 1s, in ringent flowers, the
space between the two extremities of the helmet and
the under lip. |

6. The throat, (faux), in a monopetalous and
vingent corolla, is the opening of the tube. |

7. The palate, (palatum), in a personate corolla ts
the arch of the under lip which is so elevated as to
close the faux.

8. The beard, (darba s. labellum), is the under iip
of a ringent and persenate corolla.

9, The lips, (labia), m the bilabiate and unila-
biate flowers, are the two divisions, the one called
the upper lip, (/abium superius), and the other the
under lip, (/abium inferius), ‘The galea and barba
are likewise by some botanists called lips.

§ 78.

We have already said (§ 74), that the particular
pieces of which the Corolla consists are called petals,
(petala). In each petal the following parts are to be
remarked.

es
Se)

oie

86 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC:

1. The claw, (wnguis), is the base of the petal, by
be is attached to the receptacle.
. he expansion, (lamina), the upper pene of the
a down to the unguis.

OS 2
The corolla of the Mosses differs in external ap-
pearance from that of all other plants. It has this
remarkable peculiarity, that after flowering it remains
tll the rypening of the fruit, but then appears under
a quite different form. The female flower alone is
furnished with a corolla. It consists of a pretty hard
membrane that closely embraces the pistillum. — It is-
fastened both above and below, and thus after
flowering it must be detached and be designated by
various names. ‘The under part perfectly resembles
the vagina on the straw of the Grasses, and is in-
closed by the perichetium ; it is called a sheath, (va-
ginula). The upper part remains attached to the

top of the fruit, and is called Calyptre, (calypira).
This organ shall be more particularly mentioned

Ly Sa

§ 80.

Botanists call the collection of small florets sihieh
are contained In a common perianthium, a com-
pound flower, (/los compositus s. corolla communis).
Of these compound flowers there are the following
kinds :

I. A semiflosculous flower, (/los semiflosculosus),
when the general flower consists intirely of tongue-
shaped florets, (corolle ligulate), fig. 85, 270.
! 2. A,

- TERMINOLOGY. — 87

2. A discoid flower, (jos discoideus, s. flosculosus).
¢onsists intirely of tubular florets, (corolle tubulose),
as in thistles.

- Aradiate flower, (flos radiatus), has tubular
coh in the middle, and tongue-shaped florets in
the circumference, fig. 7501 Uhe middle, consisting
ef tubular florets, is called the disc (discus), and the
circumference, containing tongue-shaped florets, is
called the ray (radius).

4. A semiradiate flower, (/los semiradiatus), when
there are tongue-shaped florets only on one side.

Suoile

Another important part of the flower is the NEC-
TARY, (vectarium). Linnzeus comprehends in this
all those bodies which have no resemblance to the
_ other parts of the flower, in whatever variety of
forms they may appear. ‘These bodies, however, do
not all secrete a sweet juice (nectar), and therefore
do not all deserve the name of Nectarium. 1 shail
in the mean time preserve this established name, and
distinguish the various kinds by their functions.
Nectaria may be divided into such as really secrete
a sweet juice or honey, or serve for the preservation
of it; or those which protect the true secretory
organs or stamina, and also serve for promoting the
impregnation.

a S ows (
Nectaria, which really secrete and exude honey,

° @,
are glands (glandul@), or nectariferous scales or
I 4 pores,

58 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

pores, (sguame nectarifere, pori nectariferi). Of.
glands, there are the following varieties :

1. Sitting, (sessilis), hich is not elevated on &
foot-stalk, as in Sinapis, Brassica, &c. fig. 148.

2, Petiolated, (petiolata), which is furnished with
a foot-stalk.

8. Spherical, (e/obosa).

4, Compressed, (compressa), which is flat on both
sides.

5. Flat, (plana), that is scarcely convex, as in
crowa imperial, Fritillaria imperialis.

6. Oblong, (oblonga), that is besides of a long
form.

7, Cup-shaped, Ciaebiarin that in form of a
cup embraces the germen. When the seeds are
ripe. it changes into a hard, green body, as in the
plants of the class Didynamia Gime peaa) As-
perifoliz, &c. fig. 74*

The squame nectarifere are small scales that exude
honey, which is found in small holes, as in ranun-
culus. ‘The small scales often secrete no honey, and
are then called simply scales (sqguama).

The Pori nectariferi are small holes or pits exud-
ing honey, and which are seen on different parts of
the flower, as in Hyacinthus orientalis, &c.

§ 83.
Of the Nectaria, so called, which are destined for

* The glands are situated on every part of the flower, on the
calyx, the corolla, the stamina and the pistillum. The glands
along secrete a honey juice,

B the

TERMINOLOGY. SY

the reception of honey, there are the following kinds ;
wiz. Vhe hood, (cucullus); the cylinder, (cylindrus) ;
the pit, (fovea); the fold, (plica); the spur, (cal-
car ). ;

The Hoop, (cucullus), 1s a hollow body like a bag
or hood, that is quite separated from all the other
parts of the flower, and has commonly a short foot-
stalk, as in monkshood, Aconitum, fig. 135, 196.
In some flowers there are such hood-like bodies,
which contain no honey, asin Asclepias Vinectoxicum,
fig. 89. :

The cylinder, (cylindrus), is a part of the flower
that has perfectly the shape of a cylinder, and there-
fore among most botanists goes by the name. It is
constantly attached to the flower, as in African
cranes-bill, Pelargonium, &c.

The pit, (fovea), is a cavity for the reception of
honey, situated either in the calyx, the corolla, or
in some other part of the flower, as in Hyptis, &c.

The roLp, (plica), is an oblong groove, formed
by the bending inwards of the corolla, which some-
times happens,

The spur, (calcar), is a horn-shaped production
of the corolla in which honey is found. Sometimes
in the pointed part of the spur there is a gland
which contains honey, but sometimes it is secreted
in another part, and thence flows into the spur, as
in the March violet, Viola odorata ; Indian cress,
Tropzolum majus, fig. 49, 112, 113.

§ 84.
All these parts of the flower may with propriety
| | he

30) PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC:

be called Nectaria; but some that are commonly
called by the mame are very\different. Certainly
those parts which serve for the protection of the

nectarious juice, or of the pollen, or for the ad-—

. vancement of the fructification, deserve at least the
name of reservoirs of honey.. Such are the Pornix,
the Barba, the Filum, and the: Corona.

The arcH, (fornix), isa small elongation of the
corolla, which commonly covers the stamina, or is

eated at the aperture of the corolla. Its form is

very various, as in comfrey, Symphytum officinale,
mouse-ear, Myosotis scorpioides, &c. fig. 81.

Vhe BEARD, (barba), consists of a number of
short hairs or soft bristles which are situated at the
opening of the calyx or, corolla; or on the petals,
or at the bottom of the flower, as in Thymus, Iris,
Periploca, &c. fig. 71, 90,92, 114.

The THREAD, (/lum), is a long, thick body of a

tender substance, and found very numerous in the

bottom of the flower. The kinds are,
1. Straight, (rectum). that has a quite straight di.
rection, as in the passion-flower, Passiflora, fig. 27.
2. Horn-like, (corniculatum), that is short and
crooked hke a horn, as in Periploca, fig. 83, 91.
The crown, (corona), 1s a very variable body,
which appears under many different forms, and in

figure generally resembles the corolla. There are

A

the following varieties :
1. One-leaved, (monophylla), as in the Narcissus,

fig. 146. |
2, Bi, tri, tetra, &c. polyphylla, consisting of two,
three,

a

TERMINOLOGY. OF

three, four or many leaves, as in Silene, Stapelia, &c.
fig. OB, 98, 100, 110, 111, 153, 154.

8. Hood-like, (cucullata): this sort, an example
of which may be found in Asclepias, covers the pis-
tillum above, like a cap or hood, fig. 88.

4. Stamen-like, (staminiformis), which has the ap-
pearance of a-stamen, as in Stratiotes.

N. Under these divisions all the Nectaria of Lin-
nesus may be properly arranged and accurately de-
termined. In some flowers, particularly the Ascle-
pias, there appear small cartilaginous bodies, which
are commonly called Tubercula, and seem to be im-
perfect or dried up glands. :

The Nectaria of the Grasses appear very like the
glume, but are distinguished by their extraordinary
fineness. They are quite transparent, and very
tender. — |

The plants which bear catkins, (amenita), have
likewise Nectaria, which are generally called squa-
mz. ‘They serve sometimes for the preservation of
the honey, sometimes for other purposes.

§ 85.

In the Howers of Mosses there have hitherto been
no traces of Nectaria discovered ; we find, however, ©
in these flowers transparent, articulated bodies, which
have been called succulent filaments, (/i/a succulen-
ta}, and which perhaps answer the purposes of Nec-
taria,) fig. 127, 130, 131, 133.

§ 86.
The stamens, (stamina), are one of the essential
parts

Og PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

parts of the flower, and are long bodies which con-
tain a quantity of dust’ or powder essential to the
fructification. 7

The parts of the stamina are three, the filament,
(filamentum), the anther, (anthera), and the powder,

(pollen).

§ 87.

The rinAMENT, (jilamentum), 1s a longish body
that is destined for the support and elevation of the
| <a In its figure it is very various.

1. Capillary, (capilare), that is all of equal thick-
ness, and as fine as a hair.

2. Filiform, (jiliforme), like the former, only
thicker, fig. 68.

3. Awl-shaped, (subulatum), which 1s thicker ben |
low than above, fig. 67.

4, Dilated, (dilatatum), that 1s so compressed on
the sides as to appear broad and leatf-like, fig. 69, 47.

5. Heart-shaped, (cordatum), the same with the
foregoing, but with a margin above and pointed
below, as in Mahernia, fig. 48.

6. Wedge-shaped, (cuneiforme), a dilated filament,
that is pointed below but cleft above, as in Lotus /-
tragonolobus.

7. Loose, (diberum), that is not attached to any
other filament.

8. Connate, (connata), when several grow to-
cether, forming a cylinder, as in the mallow, Malva,
fig. 23, 27, 56. |

9. Bifid, (bifidum), when a filament is divided into

two parts,
oO. Mul-

TERMINOLOGY. 93

10. Multifid or branched, (smdltifidum s. ramosum),
when it is divided into many branches, as in Caro-
linea princeps, fig. 58.

11. Jointed, (articulatun), when the filament has
a moveable joint, as in sage, Salvia officinalis.

12. Connivent, (conniventia), when several fila-
ments bend towards one another at their points.

18. Incurved, (incurvum). that has a bend like a
bow, fig. 45.

14. Declined, (declinata), when several filaments
do not stand erect, but by degrees, without describ-
ing a large curve, bend towards the upper or under
part of the flower, as in Pyrola.

15. Hairy, (pilosum), set with fine hairs.

16, Equal; (¢gualia), that are all of equal length.

17. Unequal, (nequalia), when some are long
and. some short, fig. 50, 51*.

§ 38.

The ANTHER, (anthera), is a hollow, cellular
body, that contains a quantity of pollen. Its kinds
are the following : |

1. Oblong, (oblonga), which is long and pointed
at both ends.

2. Linear, (/inearis), that is ins and flat, but all
of equal breadth.

3. Spherical, (globosa).

4. Kidney-shaped, (reniformis), that is spherical
on one side, but concave on the other, as in ground

* The filaments are attached to different parts of the flower,
which in accurate description must be specified.

IVY;

G4. PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC:

ivy, Glechoma hederacea, fox-glove, Digitalis puts
purea, Xc. fig. 68.

5. Doubled, (didyma), when two seem to be
joined together, fig. 45.

6. Arrow-shaped, (sagittata), that is long suited
and cleft at the base into two parts, fig. 67.

7. Bifid, (4ifda), that is linear, but cleft above and
below, as in the Grasses, fic. 94.

8. Peltated, (peltata), that is circular, flat on both
sides, and attached by the middle to the filament, as
in the yew, Taxus baccata, fig. 64.

9. Dentated, (dentaia), that on the margin has
dents or indentations, as in the yew, Taxus baccata,
fig. 64.

10. Hairy, (pilosa), that 18 covered with hair, as
im the dead nettle, Lamium album, fig. 65.

11. Awned, (aristata), that at the point runs out
into two thin elongations, as in the arbutus Uva Ursi,
fig. 63.

12. Crested, (cristata), when several cartilaginous
points are set on the sides or on the base, as in some
heaths, Erice. |

13. Awnless, (mutica), when it has neither awn
nor crest. It is the opposite of No. 11, 12.

14. Angulated, (angulata), that has several deep
furrows, that form four or more angles. 3

15. Bilocular, (bilocularis), when the anther is di-
vided by a partition into two parts or cells.

- 16. Unilocular, (wnilocularis), when there is but
one cell or cavity in the anther.

17. Bursting at the side, (/atere dehiscens).

18. Bursting at the point, (apice dehiscens).

enunees

TERMINOLOGY. O#

19. Free, (/ibera), that is not attached to another
anther. '

20. Connate, (connate), when several grow to-
vether, forming a tube, fig. 84, 86, 87.

21. Erect, (erecta), standing with its base straight
on the point of the filament, fig. 67.

29, Incumbent, (incumbens), that 1s perpendicu-
larly, or even obliquely attached to the filament.
fig. 55, 126.

28, Lateral, (/ateralis), that is attached by its side
to the point of the filament, fig. 68.

24. Moveable, (versatilis), when Nos. 22 and 23
are so slightly attached to the filament that the least
motion agitates the anther.

25. Adnate, (adnata), when the anther ts closely
attached to both sides of the point of the filament,
fig. 69.

26. Sitting, (sessilis), that has no filament.

The internal structure of the anther is described

particularly in the Physiology.

§ 89.

The POLLEN is a powder, that appears in the form
of the finest dust. In the microscope its figure is
various, being hollow and filled with a fertilizing
moisture, of which more will be said in the Phy-
siology.

| -§ 90.
In the genus of Orchis, (§ 143, No. 7.) and in

some twining plants, as in Asclepias, Cynanchum,
1 | Stapelia,

96 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Stapelia, &c. the anther is without a cuticle, or ra-
ther it makes’ but a very large particle of the ©
pollen. i

The stamina of the Mosses are very like those of
the genus Orchis. The filament is extremely short
and articulated, the anthera itself is properly a single
particle of pollen.

In the Equisetum the stamina are still more’like
the common. ‘The rest of the Filices have stamina
which resemble pollen. The same may be said of
the Fungi.

51,

The pisTin, (pistillum), is the second essential
part of the lower. It stands constantly in the mid-
die, and consists of three parts, viz. the Germen,
Stylus and Stigma.

692.

The GerMeEN is the undermost part of the pistil-
lum, and is the rudiment of the future fruit. The
number of germina is various; they are reckoned
from six to eight, after which they are said to be
several or many germina. ‘The figure is also very
various. In respect of situation, the geymen is some-
times above, sometimes under ; (for the meaning of
which, see afterwards § 96). ‘The principal kinds
are,

1. Sitting, (sessile), that has no foot-stalk, fig. 46.

2, Pedicelled, (pedicellatum), furnished with <
foot-stalk, fig. 27, 144.

S Oo. lie

TERMINOLOGY. O7

Cu 93.

The sty.e, (sty/us), 1s seated upon the germen,
and resembles a small column or stalk. ‘The kinds
of it are the following:

1. Hair-like, (capillaris), that is very slender, and
of equal thickness. |

2. Bristle-like, (sefaceus), as slender. as the: for-
mer, but somewhat thicker at the base.

_ $8. Thread-like, (jiliformis), which is long and
round. |

4. Awl-shaped, (subulatus), thick below, above
Sparp-pointed.

5. Gross, (crassus), that is very thick and short.

6. Club-shaped, (clavatus), thicker above than
below.

7. Two, three, four, &c. multifid, (07, tri, auntie
&c. multifidus), cleft in a determinate manner.

8. Dichotomous, (dichotomus), divided into two
parts, which are again divided at the points.

9. Terminal, (terminalis), which stands on the
top of the germen.

10. Lateral, Ceienal) attached to the side of the
germen.

11. Erect, (rectus), which stands straight up.

12. Declined, (declinatus), that inclines towards
ae os.
3. Abiding, (persistens), that does not fall off.

7 Withering, (marcescens), that withers and af-
terwards falls off.

15. Deciduous, (deciduus), that falls off imme-
diately after impregnation.

G The

98 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY. ETC.

The number of the styles must likewise be acc
rately counted, for there are often more than oné
style to one gernien, and this must be particularly
observed. ‘The length of the style, whether longer
or shorter than the stamina, is also to’be mentioned.

ole § Ode

The sticma ‘means the top of: the Stvjlesn iin hie:
kinds of it are as follows:

1. Pointed, (acutum), when it is a sharp point.

2. Blunt, (obtusum), when it forms a blunt point.
3. “Oblong, (oblongum), when it is thick and elon-

4, Club-shaped, (clavatum), resembling a small
élub.

5. Spherical, (globosum), forming a perfectly
round globe.

6. Capitate, (capitahim), a’ POETRY the une
der side flat.

7. Emarginated, (emarginatum), when the last
mentioned kind has a notch in it.

SuilPeltateds" (4 ae he that is formed like a
shield.

9, Uncinated, (uncinatum), hooked at the point.

10. Angular, (angulosum), when ‘it is furnished:
with close and deep furrows, which océasion pro-
jecting angles.

11. Tee: lobed, (rrilobum), ‘which consists of
three round bodies, somewhat pressed flat, fig. 153.

12. Dentated, (dentatum), when it is set with fine
teeth.

13. C7 |

TERMINOLOGY. 99

13. Cruciform, (cruciforme), when it is divided
into four parts, of which two are always opposite to
each other. |

14. Pencil-like, (penicilliforme), consisting of a
number of short, thick, close, fleshy ‘fibres, in form
of a pencil.

15. Hollow, (concavum), when it is of a globular
or longish form, but quite hollow, as in the violet.

16. Petal-like, (petaloideum), when it has the ap-
pearance of a petal, as in Iris, fig. 70.

17. Two, three, &c. ‘multifid, fig. 94. (bi, tri, &e.
multifidum ). |

18. Bent back, (revolutum), when the points of a
bifid or multifid stigma are rolled ‘back outwards,
fig. 84

19. Bent in, (convolutum), when the points of a
divided stigma are rolled inwards. :

20. Spiral, (spirale), when a multifid stigma is
rolled up like the'spring of a watch.

21. Plumose, (plumosum), when the stigma is set
with fine‘hairs on both sides soas to have the ap-
pearance of a feather, as in the Grasses, fig. 94, 95.

22. Hairy, (pubescens), that is set with short white
‘hairs.

23. Lateral, (/aterale), which is situated ‘on the
side of the stylus or of the ¢ermen.

24, ‘Sitting, (sessile), which when there is'no stile
rests on the germen,

The stigma, properly speaking, consists of a num-
ber ‘of inhaling tubercles, which are ‘not always vi-

G2 sible

100 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

sible without a magnifier. In the Mirabilis Jalappa
they are to be seen distinctly.

§ 95.

The pistillum of Mosses is furnished with a ger-
men, stylus, and stigma, like other plants. But in
this tribe there are several pistilla, some only of
which form perfect fruit, the others are barren.
The equisetum has no style, neither have the other
Filices and Fungi. In the Filices, the pistillum has
the appearance of a small grain, so likewise that of
the Fungi, only in this it is drawn together like a
small net. [In all these plants the parts can be ob-
served only by means of a high magnifier.

§ 96.

With regard to the flower in general, it is to be
remarked, that such flowers as have neither calyx
nor corolla are called naked, (mudi); when the co-
rolla is wanting, the flower is said to be apetalous,
(flos ‘apetalus), and when there is no calyx, a corol-
laceous or aphyllous flower, (los corallaceus s. aphyl-
lus). Flowers which have stamina and pistilla are
called hermaphrodite, (flores hermaphroditi); when
the pistilla are wanting, they are called male flowers,
(flores masculi); and when there are no stamina, fe-
male flowers, (flores feminci). In the description of
the germen, (§ 92), we did not speak of its situation.
In flowers it is situated either under the calyx, and the
flower is then said to be above, (flos superus s. epi-
carpius), or the germen is then said to be below,

(germen:

TERMINOLOGY. 101

(germen inferum); or the germen is included in the
calyx, and is then said to be above, (germen super-
um); or in this ease the flower is said to be below,
(flos inferus s. hypocarpius).

When in common we describe the situation of the
germen we are to observe whether it is situated
above or below the calyx, without attending to the
place of the corolla; for the calyx 1s often under,
and the corolla above. But in more accurate de-
scription we remark the situation of the corolla.

Sole

When plants have done flowering there proceeds
from the germen (§ 92) the fruit, (fructus.) This
is either naked seeds, (semen), or a skin, hard shell,
or other substance ‘containing the seeds, called
‘pericarp, (pericarpium), (§ 98). Thus all plants
may be brought under two great divisions, name-
ly, such as Have naked seeds, (vegetabilia gymno-
spermia), that is to say, such where the germen
changes into one or more naked seeds; and such
as have their seeds covered, (vegetabilia angiosper-
mia), or those whose’ germen changes into a peri-
carpium. Of the first kind, namely the naked seeded
plants, there have yet been discovered only four va-
rlelies, viz. ?

1. One-seeded, ‘(vegetabilia monosperma), where
the single germen is one naked seed. |

2. ‘Two-seeded, (disperma), when out of two or
one germen in a flower there proceed two naked
seeds.

Pi GaG The

10%; PRINCIPHES Of BOTANY, ETC.

3. Four-seeded, (tetrasperma), when four germina
on one four-partitioned germen: in. a flower change
to four nakediseeds.

4, Many-seeded, (polysperma), when out of several
vermina in one flower there proceed: several: naked
seeds.

‘The parts of the pericarpium and the seed are:
subject to. much variation, which we shall exem-
plify in the following paragraphs.

§ 98.

The PERICARPIUM is 9 Gayity of various figure,
¢ontainine seeds. The kinds of it are, Utriculus,
Samara, Folliculis, Capsula, Nux, Drupa, Bacca, Pa-
mum, Pepo, Siliguay Legumen, Lomentum, and ‘Eheca..

99,

The BLADDER, (wiriculus.), consists of a thin skin,
which. incleses a single seed. ‘The kinds of it are
these : :
ca, Loose, (laxus.), that holds the seed. inclosed,
ey loose, as in. Adonis, ‘Thalictrum, fig. 165,, 166,

. Strait, (strictus), that quite closely surrounds
the seed, as. ladies Pessina Cra sine
au bi ee eee as in ie, ee

N. The Utriculus is distinguished fsom, the ex.
terior coat of the: seed by this, that between, the seed,
and the external coat there is a space, and that the
seed is connected with it by the umbilical chord.
The utriculus differs from the nut in being less hard
and more yielding.
at § 100.

TERMINOLOGY. . 108

§ 100,

The WINGED-FRUIT, (samara), is a pericarpium,
which contains one or at most. two seeds, and Is sur-
rounded, by a thin, transparent membrane, either in
its whole circumference, or at the point, or even on
the side. Examples of this are. seen in the fruit of
the elm, ulmus, fig. 162, 163; mapple, acer ; ash,

fraxinus ; biych, betula; and many others. ‘The
kinds of it are determined by the number. of the
seeds, whether there be one or two im the fruit, or
according to the place to which the thin membrane
is attached, which is called the wing, (a/z).

§ 101.

The FOLLICLE, (folliculus), 1s an oblong pericar-
plum, which bursts longitudinally on one side, and
is filled with seeds. ‘The follicle is seldom single,
there are generally two together. Its varieties are
determined according to the attachment of the seed ;
when, for example, there is a partition in the middle
to. which the seed is fixed; or when it is attached to
both sutures at which this fruit bursts; as m As-
clepias syriaca, Vinca, Oleander, &c. fig. 170.

§ 102,

The capsu.e, (capula), isa pericarpium, consist-
ing of a thin coat which contains many seeds, olten
divided into cells, and assuming various forms. The
parts of the capsule are the following:

a. The partition, (dissepimentum), is a firm mem-
(G 4 brane

104. PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

brane that intersects and divides the inner
cavity of the capsule.

b. The cells, (/eculamenta), are the spaces be-
tween the partitions.

c Uhe columella is a filiform body that passes
through the middle of the Capsule, and to
which the partitions are attached, fig. 169.

d. The valves, (valvu), form the outward
coat of the Capsule, which bursts longitu-
dinally in several parts.

e. The suture, (sutura), is a deep furrow which
appears on the outside of the coat.

The different sorts of capsules are distinguished
according as they are round, long, &c. and further,
according as they are, | |

1, Unilocular, (unilocularis), when there are no
divisions. |

2. Two, three, four, &c. or many celled, 07, tri,
quadri, or multilocularis, according to the number of
the'cells, fig. 155.

3. Two, three, &c. or many-valved, 61, tri, &c,
multivalvis, according to the number of the valves
that appear on the bursting of the capsule, fig. 156,
169 |

4. Two, three, &c. many-seeded, (di, tri, &c. po-
lysperma), according to the number of the seeds.

5. Vricoccous, (¢ricocca), when a trilocular cap-
sule appears as if three were grown together, as in
the tea-shrub, Thea viridis, Euphorbia, &c.

6. Berried, (Zaccata), when the coat is fleshy and
soft.

7. Cor-

TERMINOLOGY. OS

¢ lee

7. Corticated, (corticata), when the external coat
ishard, and the internal soft; or when the exter-
nal is spongy, and the inner membranaceous, as in
Magnolia, Uhicium anisatum.

Woody, (Jignosa), when the coat is very hard,
but still bursts in valves.

The Capsule has different names according to the
various ways in which it opens, e.g. bursting at the
top, (apice dehiscens); bursting at the base, (basi de-
biscens), bursting in the middle, (circumscissa), open-
‘ing with a lid, operculata, &c.

- The fruit of the Hepatic Mosses, (Musci hepatict),
is likewise called a Capsule. They have over the
Capsule a thin, light, deciduous membrane called
calyptre, (calyptra). ‘The Capsule bursts in four or
two valves, (guadri-vel bivalvis), fig. 227. The
four or more valve-like bodies are called threads,
(fila). At the seeds are other threads formed like
a small chain, which are called catenule. In the
bivalved. capsules there is a slender column on which
the seeds hang, which is called columnula s. sporan-
gidium, : |

The Filices have one or more capsules, in general
<idney-shaped, which form on some an elevated ar-

ticulated border: _ This border is called finbria.

§ 103. /

The nur, (mux), is a seed covered with a hard
shell, which does not burst; as the hazle-nut, Cory-
Jus avellana, the oak, Quercus robur, the hemp, Can-
nabis sativa, fig. 205. ‘The shell is called Puramen,
und 1s deseribed according as it is hard (durum), or

brittle

106 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

brittle (fragile). The seed. contained in the nut. is
called the kernel (xucleus), We remark likewise
whether the nut is two or three-sided, (d/,, vel tri-
sperma), ox whether it is divided into cells, namely,
two, three, or many-celled, (b/, tri, vel multilocu-
faris).

§ 104.

The pRupz, (drupa), 1s a nut which is covered.
avith a thick, fleshy, succulent or cartilaginous coat.
The following are its varieties :

1. Berried, (4accata), when it is surrounded by a
yery succulent coat; as in the cherry, Prunus ce-
easus; the plumb, Prunus domestica; Peach, Amyg-
dalus Persica; Apricot, Prunus Armeniaca, &c.

2. Fibrous, (fbrosa), when instead of a fleshy it
has a fibrous coat, as in the cocoa-nut, Cocos Nu
ciferd.

3. Dry, (exsucca), when mstead of a fleshy coat,
it is covered with a spongy, membranaceous or coria-
ceous substance, as in the walnut, Juglans regia ;
almond, simygdalus communis; Tetragonia expansa,
Sparganium. |

4, Winged, (alata), when the Drupa has a mem.
ei a rim, which 1s called a wing, as in Ha-
les

eo

5. ee. (dehiscens), when the external rind
bursts. Properly speaking this is not peculiar to
the Drupa, but it is the case with many species,
as in walnut, Juglans regia; mutmeg, Myristica
moschata, fig. 204, 206, 209, 211.

6. One,

TERMINOLOGY: - 107

6. One, two, three, four nutted, &c. (sono, bi;
tri, tetrapyrena), which contains one, two, three or
four nuts. Butif the hard shell of the nut grows
to the kernel, it 1s called a pyrenous berry.

In accurate description. we must attend to the
figure of the nut, as well: as to its cells. The nut
of the Drupa has sometimes two, three, or more cells,
fig.171; 172, 173:

§ 100:

Phe perry, (dacqa), is a succulent fruit which
contains several seeds, andi never bursts. It incloses
-the seeds without any determinate. order; or it is
divided by a thin membrane. into cells. ‘There are
the following kinds:

1. Succulent, (suceosa), which consists of a very
soft, succulent substance, as in the gooseberry, Ribes
grossularia, &c. |

2. Corticated, (corticosa), which is covered with a
hard rind, so that it cannot be bruised. It might bé
taken for a capsule, but it never bursts, and is filled
with a juicy substance in which the seeds lie, as in
Garcinia Mangostana.

3. Dry, (exsucca), that instead of a fleshy sub:
stance, is covered with a coriaceous or coloured
skin, as in the ivy, Hedera Aelix.

4. One, two, three, many-seeded, (mono, bi, tri;
polysperma), according to the number of seeds which
the berry contains. /

5. One, two, three, many-celled,. (uni, bi, tris
multilocularis), according to the number of Cells inté
which the berry is divided. | |

2 6. Twos

108 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

6. Two, three, &c. pyrenous, (di, tripyrena, &c.)
when the particular seeds have a hard shell like the
nut, but with this difference, that the hard rind is
inseparably attached to the skin of the seed, as we
have already said, § 104, No. 6. In the species of
apple this is sometimes the case*. }

§ 106.

The appre, (pomum), is a fleshy fruit, that in-
ternally contains a capsule for the seed. It differs
from the celled berry, in having a perfect capsule in
the heart. It is considered according to its sub-
stance and figure, whether it is fleshy or coriaceous,
round, long, &c. Examples of this sort of peri-
carpium we have in the common apple, Pyrus malus,
pear, Pyrus communis, quince, Pyrus cydonia, &c.

§ 107.

The PUMPKIN, (pepo), is commonly a succulent
fruit, which has its seeds attached to the inner sur-
face of the rind, as in the gourd, Cucurbita pepo ;
eucumber, Cucumis sativus; melon, Cucumis melo;

passion-ilower, Passiflora; water-soldier, Stratiotes

aloides, &e. ‘Lhe sorts of Pepo are,

* Of the Berry it is further to be remarked, that if in one
flower there are many styles, and each of the germina bears a
berry, all the small berries (aezmz) grow into one, and are call-
ed a compound berry (bacca composita), as in the rasp, Rubus
tefceus, UC.

This 1s likewise the case in the Drupa, e, ¢. the breadfruit,
Aytocarpus.

{In descriptions the figure of the berry is carefully attended to.

1. One,

TERMINOLOGY. 109

: 4. One, two, three, &c. many-locular, (uni, bi,
tri, &%c. multilocularis), according to the number of
the cells, fig. 210,\212

2. Half- locular, genni liculania) when the partition
does not reach to the centre.

3. Fleshy, (carnosa), that is full of a firm, fleshy
substance.

4. Juicy, (succosa), that is filled with a very soit
substance. :

5. Dry, (exsucce), that contains neither fleshy nor
soft substance.

6. Cortical, (corticosa), which has a very: firm,
hard. rind.

The external figure of the Pepo is not very va-
rious, and is, in general, either round, club- shaped,
oblong, &c.

§ 108.

The si,igue, (siliqua), isa dry, elongated pert-
carp, which consists of two halves or valves, and
externally, where these are connected, forms an up-
per and under suture. Internally the seeds are at-
tached to the margin of the partition on ner sides
of the suture, the upper as weil as the under, ¢. g. in
the mustard, Sinapis a/ba, cabbage, Brassica olera-
66a, Fe. fig. 190, 191... When, the Siliqua is as
broad as it 1s long, it is called silicle (silicula),
fir. 187, 188, as in the garden cress, Lepidium sa-
tivum ; shepherd’s purse, Thlaspi bursa pastoris. The
Siliqua is distinguished according to the situation of
the partition, (dissepimentum). When both valves
of this pericarpium are flat, and the partition, which

9) reaches

110 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

reaches from one suture to the other, is ‘of equat
breadth, we say the valves run parallel with the
partition, (valvulis dissepimento parallelis). But if
both valves are swelled and hollow, so that the two
sutures stand in the centre of the pericarp, and the
partition is much narrower than the greatest breadth
of the fruit, we say, the valves run contrary to the
partition, (waluulis dissepimenio.contrariis). Many va-
rieties take place in the figure of the Siliqua*.

* § 109.

The recuMe, (legumen), is-a dry, elongated peri-
carp, that consists of two halves or valves, exter-
nally forming two sutures. The seeds are attached
to both margins of the under suture only. The
kinds of the legumen are, )

1. Membranaceous, (membranaceum), when both
valves consist of a transparent membrane.

2, Coriaceous, (coriaceum), when the two valves
are of a thicker and tougher substance.

3. Fleshy, (carnosum), when the two valves con-
sist of a soft fleshy substance.

4, Woody, (dignosum), when ‘both valves are as
hard as a nut-shell, and’do not burst.

5. Mealy, (/arinosum), when the seed is surround:
ed with a mealy substance. as in Hymenea curbaril.

* Of the Silicule, there are some which have a double shell,
the exterior softer and spongy, the interior harder, which con-
tains the seed, inclosed in cells. These are called drupaceous
Silicles, (sticule drupacee). But the kinds of silicle which
never burst, are called baccate. Of'the first kind, Bunias, and
of the second, Crambe, afford examples.

6, ‘Toro

TERMINOLOGY. 1ii

6. Torolose, (forolosum), ‘when both valves are
round and thick, fig. 174, 175.

7s Ventricose, (ventricosum), when the valves in:
ternally are distended with air.

8. ‘Compressed, (comp ressum), when the valves are
both flat.

9, Channelled, (canaliculatum), when the upper
suture is deeply firrrowed, as in Lathyrus sativus.

10. One, two, or many-seeded, (mono, di, vel poz
lyspermum), according to the number of the seeds.

11. Spiral, (cochleatum), when it is twisted like the
shell of a snail, as in Medicago *.

§ 110.

The tomenvt, (/omentum), is an elongated peri:
carpitim, consisting of two valves; externally it
forms sutures, but, like the legume, it never
bursts. Internally it is divided into cells by small
transverse partitions, whiéh contain only one seed
attached to the under suture. . It never bursts longi:
tudinally, like the two former pericarps ; but wher
it opens, the partitions detach themselves in smal!
pieces: The kinds of this pericarp are the follow:
ing :

1. Cortical, (corticosum), when the outer shell is
very hard and woody, but the internal cavities are
filled with a soft substance, as in Cassia Fistala;
fig. 192, 194.”

* There are still other kinds, which are named acco ding
to their figure, and according as the surface is’ set with hairs;
bristles, wings, points, or prickles.

9. Art

112 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

2. Articulated, (articulatum), when the transverse
partitions appear distinctly on the outside, and are
easily divided into joints, as in Hedysarum.

3. Intercepted with isthmuses, (ésthmis interceptum), —
when_the transverse partitions are easily seen, and
also easily separate, but the cells are much smaller
than the articulations, as in Hippocrepis.

GT
The case, (theca), is the fruit of the frondose
Musci. It is a dry fruit that opens in the middle
with a lid, and is furnished with particular parts.

A. The Calyptre, (calyptra), 1s a tender skin
that like a cup loosely covers the top of the
theca. (S)-79). 0 Altiis,

1. Intire, (integra), that wholly covers the top of
the theca, as in Grimmia extinctoria.

2. Halt, (dimidiata), that only half covers the top
of the theca, as in most Musci, fig. 138. :

3. Hairy, (wilfosa), that 1s composed of hairs, as
in Polytrichum, fig. 136. |

4, Dentated, (dentata), when the rim is set with
teeth, as in Grimmia denéata.

B. The Lid, (operculum), is a round body that
closes the opening of the theca, and when the
seed is ripe falls off. It is,

1, Convex, (convexum), that has a raised or arch-
ed surface. |
2. Conical, (conicum), that is wide below,’ but
runs above into a round point.
3. Acute, (acutum), that is wide below, but above
erows gradually into an acute point, fig. 138.
4, AcuU-.,

TERMINOLOGY. ¥ts

4. Acuminated, (acuminatum), when the upper
part is drawn out into a very long point, fig. 137.

5. Flat, (planum), when the operculum is quite
flat.

6. Mucronate, (mucronatum), when the operculum
is quite flat, but on the upper side, in the centre, has
a bristle-like point.

C. The Fringe, (fimbria s. annulus), is a nar-
row sinuated membrane, that is set with small
membranaceous teeth, and lies within the
operculum. ‘This body possesses great elas-
ticity, and thus serves to throw off the oper-
culum from the theca, fig. 261.

D. The Mouth, (peristoma s. peristomium), is
the membranaceous rim which surrounds the
mouth of the theca. ‘The peristoma is of
two kinds:

1. Naked, (nudum), that is intire without either
teeth or eminences, fig. 178.

2. Figured, (figuratum), set with membranaceous
teeth. 3

a. With one row, (ordine simplici dentatum),
when there is a single row of teeth round
the opening. These are distinguished accord-
ing to their number and situation, &c. as,

é. Four, sixteen, or thirty-two dentated,
(quadri, sedecim, vel 32 dentatum). No other
differences in the teeth have been yet ob-

served, fig. 176,177, 179, 180.

&, With divided teeth, (dentes bifidi), when
the points of the teeth are divided. -

y» Twisted, (contorti), when the tecth are

Hi drawn

114 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

drawn together, and twisted into the form
of a cylinder, fig. 184.

b. With a double row, (ordine duplici dentatum),
when behind one row of teeth there is a
second, fig. 181.

a. Not cohering, (non coherentes), when the
teeth of the inner row do not cohere, but
stand free.

fg. Cohering at the points, (apice coh@rentes).
When the teeth of the inner row cohere
at their points. |

y Ciliato-dentate, (ciliato-dentatum), when
the inner row has alternately teeth and
bristles.

§. Membranaceo-dentate, (membranaceo-denta-
tum), when the teeth of the inner row
cohere below by means of a membrane.

E. The Epiphragm, (epiphragma), is a thin
membrane, which stretches over {the mouth
of the theca; it is found only in the genus
Polytrichum, fig. 176.

F. The Seed-column, (sporangidium s. colum-
nula), is a slender, thread-like body, that
passes through the middle of the theca, and
to which the seed is attached. It is analogous
to that body which in a capsule is called by
the same name. _

G. The Apophysis is a fleshy, round, or oblong
body, that appears at the base of the theca.
Sometimes it is very small, and almost im-
perceptible ; sometimes, however, larger than
the theca itself, fig. 176, 179. :

In

TERMINOLOGY. 115

In one genus of Musci (the Phascum), the oper-
culum never separates from the theca: but as soon
as the seed is ripe, the whole theca falls off. As no
mouth can be seen in this Moss, it is said to be with-
out one (peristoma nullum).

§ 112.

In the Fung the capsules are hidden in the sub-
stance of the gills, pores, prickles or papilla, or
where these are wanting, in the fleshy substance.
The capsules open at the top and disperse the seeds in
very slender fibres. In the genus Octospora, there
are eight seeds in a capsule, fig. 286, 287. In
some species of the same genus the seeds are in-
cluded by twos in one membrane, and there are
eight of these double seeds in one capsule, fig. 283,
284. Different genera of Fungi, and among others
the Lycoperdon, have numerous seeds, which com-
pose their whole inner substance, fig. 7. Others,
as the genus Peziza, have loose capsules.

§ 113...

According tothe explanation givenin § 97, the fruit
is that part which is formed from the germen, whe-
ther it change into naked seeds or into a pericarpium.
The botanist can never form a proper judgment of
any fruit till he is acquainted with the mode of its
production. The calyx, the corolla, the nectarium,
the receptacle, may after flowering envelope the ger-
men, may grow with it, and thus form a particular
sort of fruit that may have the appearance of a peri-
carpium without being one. Such a production is

H2 called

tiG PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, EFC.

called a false fruit, (fructus spurius). Some of these,
én account of their resemblance, have got the name
of that sort of pericarp which, without accurate in-
vestigation, they most nearly resemble. Others
have got peculiar names ; for instance,

1. Strobile, (strobilus), is @ catkin, (§ 64), the
scales of which have become woody, and, according
to the nature of the plants, contain one or two
loose seeds, or even nuts, under each scale. ‘The
whole has the appearance of a particular sort of
fruit. ‘The kinds of the strobilus are,

a. Cylindrical, (cylindric#s), fig. ¥93.

p. Conical, (eonicus), :

y. Ovate, (ovatus)

é. Spherical, (globosus), &c. 7

2; The target, (pelta) ; thisis seen in the Lichens,
and is a longish, blunt, flat, leaf-like receptacle, in the
substance of which the seeds lie hid, fig. 226.

3. The shield, (scutellc), is likewise found in the
Lichens, and is a plate-shaped, flat, sometimes con-
vex and sometimes.concave receptacle, furnished
with a margin; sometimes raised and semetimes
depressed, which incloses the seeds in its substance,
fig. 3. |

4. The tubercle, (tuberculum), is also’ found in
‘Lichens, and is' a convex receptacle, of a figure
somewhat various, in the substance of which the
seeds lie.

The other sorts of false fruit are, as we have al-
ready said; denominated according to their resem-
blance, as,

as Vhefalse capsule, (capsula spuria). The Beechy
Fagus

TERMINOLOGY. Tt]

Fagus sylvatica bears such. The proper fruit
of this tree are two three-cornered nuts that
stand close together, and are encompassed
by a coricaceous prickly calyx, which has |
the appearance of an unilocular, four-valved
ycapsule. The dock, Rumex, bears but a

single seed, which the abiding calyx sur-
rounds like a capsule. The Carex ‘bears
one seed, which is inclosed by the nectari-
um, and thus acquires a capsule-like form.

® The false nut, (nus spuria). The Trapa
natans, has a single seed which is attached
to the calyx, the foliola of which change
into a hard nut-shell with four spines. ‘The
Coix, lachryma fobi, bas a single seed, in-
closed however by the calyx and corolla, and
becomes hard and shining tike a stone. The
Mirabilis ya/apa, retains the under part of
the tube of the corolla, which grows with
the seed, and forms a nut.

é. Uhe false drupa, (drupa spuria). ‘The yew,
Taxus baccata, bears a nut that ts half sunk
in the fleshy receptacle, and thus appears
like a drupa. ‘his is the case likewise with
the Anacardium and Semicarpus, (§ 117.)

al. The false berry, (acca spuria). Vhe juni-
per, Juniperus communis has a catkin, (§ 64),
and-must regularly bear a strobilus; but the
scales grow together, become fleshy, and as-
sume the appearance of a berry. ‘The straw-
berry, Fragaria vesca, bears detached seeds

upon

118 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

upon a fleshy receptacle, and looks like a
berry, (§ 117). The Basella incloses its
seeds in the calyx and corolla, which become
fleshy, and thus has the appearance of a
perfect berry.

More examples of this kind may be learned by
attentive observation.

With regard to the Strobilus it remains to be no-
ticed, that we often falsely so call the scaly imbri-
cated seeds of the tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, —
and the imbricated capsules of the Magnolia, fig.
159. But the Strobilus proceeds only from a cat-
kin. |

The capsules or membranes which inclose the
seeds of Lichens in shields, scutellze or tubercles,
are found in these parts in a vertical position; they
open only at the top, and scatter the seeds in the
form of a fine powder. They are only to be seen
when one takes a thin section of these parts and
uses the assistance of a microscope. :

§ 114.

The sEzp, (semen), is that part of the plant which —

is destined to its propagation. It consists of two
halves, which change at germination into leaves, and
are called seed-leaves or cotyledons, (cotyledones).
Between these, on one side, lies the corcle, (corcu-
lum), which consists of two bodies, one sharp-point-
ed, which descends into the earth, and becomes a
root, rostel, (rostellum) ; the other ascending, and af-
terwards to form the stem and leaves, called plu-
mule,

TERMINOLOGY. 119

mule, (plumula). The seed Hedley is covered with
a double integument, the outer one being thick and
of a firm consistence, the inner transparent and ten-
der. The external one is called the external tunic,
(tunica externa), the inner, the internal membrane,
(membrana interna). ‘The place in the seed. which is
occupied by the corculum may be seen externally,
as it is marked by a deep impression called the eye,
or external scar, (hilum). ‘The seed, till it has at-
tained its full ripeness, is fastened by a small thread
called the umbilical cord, (funiculus umbilicalis).

Plants have been divided according to the various
ways in which the seed germinates; viz. such as”
have no seed-leaves are called acotyledonous, (acoty-
ledones) ; such as have one, two, or more seed-leaves,
are called monocotyledonous, &c. (mono, di, polyco-
tyledones). But an accurate observation of nature
shews the above division to be inept. In what dif-
ferent ways seeds germinate will be shewn in the
Physiology, § 245.

The forms of the seed are very various, but they
are easily distinguished. By means of the umbili-
cal cord, seeds are attached, in the pericarpium,
either to the rim, to the receptacle, to the inner sur-
face, to the valves, &c.; but when they are found
so close in a berry that their attachment cannot
easily be seen, they are said to be nidulant seeds,
(semina nidulantia). ‘The substance of seeds is firm,
and we have but few examples of soft seeds, Lin-
nzus sometimes speaks of two-celled seeds, (semina
bilocularia); but such can no more occur in nature

H 4 than

120 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

than eggs with two cells; what Linnezus thus calls,:
are generally two-celled nuts*. |

Gadts.

To the seed and to the pericarp belong yet other
organs, which contribute to the accurate cunaieaes
of his Vik. |

1. The ariLuvs 3s a soft membrane extended
aver the seed; it is called,

a. Succulent, (succulentus, baccatus, s. carnosus).
when itas thick and fleshy, as in the spindle-
tree, Euonymus europaeus.

b. Cartilaginous, (cartilagineus), when it 1s of

adirm consistence, and thick.

¢. Membranaceous, (membranaceus), when it
consists of a thin, transparent tunicle.

d. Walved, (dimidiatus), when only the half of
the seed has a covering.

e. Torn, (/acerus), when the arillus 1s 1rregu-

larly laciniated, fig. 206.

Caped, (calyptratus), when it covers the top
of the seed, as the calyptra surrounds the
top of the theca in Mosses, (§ 111.)

g. Net-like, (veticulatus), when it closely em-
braces the seed like a fine web. Examples

ob

* In the animal kingdom there has indeed been discovered
a leech, (birudo octoculato), whichiproduces one egg, and from
this proceed eight, ten, or more young, But it may be ques-
tioned whether this is really a single egg, or whether it is not
several connected tugether ‘by some mucilaginous matter. In
plants there is no mstanee of this‘known to me.

of

TERMINOLOGY. 12i

of this are found in the species of Orchis, and par-
ticularly in all very small seeds. In these_plants the
seeds are inclosed as in a bag*.

2. The pappus is the calyx of each particular
floret inclosed in a common perianth, (§ 70). Dur-
ing the time of flowering, the pappus is in most
plants so very small that its distinguishing characters
cannot ‘well be observed, when the seed ripens it
attains its perfection, and then exhibits the following
varieties : |

a. Sitting, (sessilis), when the pappus sits on
the top of the seed, without any foot-stalk,
fig. 189.

&. Stipitate, (stipitatus), when it is supp ported on
a pedicle, fig. 185, 186,

¢ Abiding, (persistens), when it is so closely
attached to the seed that it does not fall off.

d. ‘Caducous, (caducus s. fugax), when it falls
off upon the ripening of the seed.

e. Calycled, (calyculatis Ss. marginaius), when a
membranaceous rim vises over the seed; this
is either,

a. Whole, (integer), when the rim is not in-
dented, and surrounds the top of the seed,
asin Tanacetum, Dipsacus ; or,

B. Halved, (dimidiatus), when the rim sur-

* The Arillus does not surround the seeds alone; some-
times it even incloses the pericarpium, as-in the nutmeg, My-
ristica moschata ; what is called mace is an arilhas which sut-
roynds the fruit, fig. 206.

rounds

PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

rounds only the half of the top of the
seed.

f. Chatty, (paleaceus), when small leaves like
scales stand round the top of the seed, as in
the sun-flower, Helianthus annuus, and many
others. This chaffy pappus consists of two,
three, five or more leaves, (di, tri, penta, vel
polyphyllus) ; the foliola are lanceolate, ob-
tuse or setaceous. !

g. Awned, (aristatus), when one, two, or even
three, but never more, straight sete stand
round the top of the seed, as in Bidens #ri-
partita. .

hb. Stellate, (stellatus), when five long pointed
bristles are spread like a star on the top of
the seed.

ij. Hair-like, (capillaris s. pilosus), when many
very fine, and commonly shining, white, sim-
ple hairs stand on the crown of the seed,
forse ee 44}

k. Setaceous, (setaceus), when many rigid
bristles, that are of another colour than
white, and all of them quite smooth, sur-
round the top of the seed, fig. 189.

i. Fringed, (ciliatus), when stiff, close-pressed
setze, are set with very short, and hardly vi-
sible hairs. ‘This kind connects the former
with the following species.

m. Plumose, (p/umosus), when the pappus is
composed of fine hairs or sete, that are
themselves set with fine hairs on the sides,
fi, 185. |

nm. Uni-

TERMINOLOGY. 123

n. Uniform, (uniformis), when all the pappi in
a common perianth are of the same form.

-o. Unlike, (difformis s. dissimilis), when in a
common perianth the pappi are of different
forms.

p. Doubled, (geminatus), when a pappus is
composed of two kinds; for instance, when
the pappus on the outside is calyciform, on
the inside capillary or hairy ; or on the out-
side calyciform, on the inside setaceous; or
also on the outside calyciform, and on the
inside plumose.

N. We must beware of confounding the hairs

which sometimes cover seeds with the true pappus.
In Eriophorum there is no true pappus, but merely
hairs that surround the seeds: this is called Lana
pappiformis. : |
3. The Turr, (coma), is a body that appears like
a pilose pappus, and is not to be distinguished from
it except by its origin. The coma is always attached
to the seeds that are contained. in a pericarp, and
never occupies the place of a calyx, as in Asclepias
syriaca, Epilobium, &c. fig. 168, 169.
- 4, The TAIL, (cauda), is along, thread-like body,
that appears on the top of the seed, or of the utri-
culus, and is set with fine hairs, as in the pasque-
flower, Anemone He eg Clematis, and many
others, fig. 164.

N. The seeds of the Typha latifolia seem to have
a pappus; but it is at the top a smooth straight
cauda, and the seed is supported on a long stalk,

that

124 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

that is set with hairs on the under part, like a
pappus.

5. The rosrRuM is a persistent style remaining
on the seed, cr on the pericarp, as in Scandix, Si-
napis, &c. When the rostrum 1s crooked, it is called
a horn, (cornu), as in the capsule cf Nigella da-
mascena, and many others.

6. The wince, (a/a), 1s a cartilaginous, thin, tran-
sparent membrane, that is found on the top, on the
back, or on the margin of the seed or of the peri-
oun Of this there are the following varieties :

a. Monopterygia, when there is but one wing.

b. Dipteryg gia, s. bialata, when there are two

wings, fig. 161.

c. eae s. trialata, three wings.

d. Tetraptera, s. quadrialata, four wings.

e. Pentaptera et polyptera, s. quinquealata et mul.
tialata, with five or many wings. ‘This kind
s found in many capsules, and in the seeds
of some umbelliferous plants. The seeds
likewise of umbelliferous plants that have
many wings are called semina molendinacea.

N. Yo this term is-also to be referred the mem-
branaceous transparent margin, (margo membrana-
ceus), which surrounds some pericarps and seeds.

7. Vhe Crest, (crista), is a thick, coriaceous or
cork-like wing, indented or deeply split, that ap-
pears on the top of some pericarps, as in Hedy-
sarum Crista Galli.

8. The ribs, (gosta s. sugum), are very prominent
xidges, that are seen in some pericarps, and on the

seeds of umbelliferous plants.
9. The

TERMINOLOGY. 125

‘9. The Wart, (verruca), is asmall, obtuse, round .
eminence, found on many seeds.

10. Hoariness, (pruina), is afine white powder,
that often covers the seeds and the pericarp, as in
the plumb, Prunus domestica, Se.

N. With regard to the surfaces and cloathing
which are proper to the pericarp and the seeds, we
refer to § 6:and'48, fig. 157; 158, 160, ‘161.

§ 116.

The RECEPTACLE, (receptaculum, thalamus, basis),
is the place on which the germen or the ripe fruit
stands. It is of two kinds, viz. proper, (proprium),
bearing but one flower, or common, (commune),
bearing several flowers, as’ is the case in the com.
pound flowers; § 80.

SOME

The simple receptacle, (receptaculum proprium),

is not much raised: it has commonly no greater sur-
face than is necessary for the space occupied by the
flower-stalk. Several plants, however, are an ex-
ception to this, particularly those that have many
styles. In these it cannot. be otherwise; a number
of styles occupies a considerable space; and there-
fore the receptacle is sometimes flat, (p/anum), some-
times arched, (convexum), and sometimes spherical,
(globosum). But the most remarkable kinds are the
dry, (siccum), that is of a hard substance, and the
fleshy, (carnosum), that is soft and succulent, as in
the strawberry, Fragaria vesca, fig. 213. This fruit
is Not a proper berry, but is a fleshy receptacle with
free

126 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

free seeds. In a few plants that have but one style,
the receptacle is uncommonly strong and fleshy,
as in the cashew nut, Anacardium occidental e,
fig. 214. The fruit of this plant is a nut, that
stands on a pear-shaped fleshy receptacle, as is the
case likewise with the Semicarpus Anacardium, fig.
216 and Gomphia japotapita, fig. 215. But the
most remarkable is a Japanese tree that bears small
capsules, and the flower-stalk of which is so ex-
tremely thick and fleshy, that it has the appearance
of a fleshy receptacle: it is the Hovenia dulcis, fig.
208.

Another kind of receptacle still is seen in uni-
locular capsules: it is found in the centre of these,
is pyramidal, and of a coriaceous substance: this is
called a spongy receptacle, (receptaculum spongiosum).

§ 118. i

The common receptacle, (receptaculum commune), is
of wide circumference, and contains a multitude of
flowers. It is of the following kinds :

1. Flat, (planum), that is perfectly even, fig. 218.

2. Convex, (convexum), that is somewhat elevated
in the centre.

3. Conical, (conicum), that rises in the centre into
a high round point, fig. 221.

4. Smooth, (glabrum), that 1s destitute of hairs —
or points.

5. Hairy, (pilosum), that is set with stiff, short
hairs. |
6. Villous, (villosum), that is set with long, .soft
hairs. | |

7. Seta-

TERMINOLOGY. 125

7. Setaceous, (setaceus), that is covered with stiff,
bristle-like hairs.

8. Prickly, (apiculatum), when it is covered with
fleshy, erect, short points.

9. Warty, (tuberculatum), when it is covered with
small round eminences.

10. Punctured, (punctatum), when the surface is
covered with small, deep holes, fig. 218.

11. Scrobiculate, (scrobiculatum), when there are
deep round pits on the surface, fig. 221.

12. Honey-combed, (favosum), when large deep
holes, like the cells in honey-combs, cover the sur-
face.

13. Various, (varium), when the common recep-
tacle is smooth on the margin and hairy in the
centre; or when the centre is smooth, the rim
chaffy, hairy or prickly.

14, Chaffy, (paleaceum), that is set with oblong,
obtuse, short, hard leaves; these leaves are called
chaff, (palee).

The scales of the catkin, stand on a slender re-
ceptacle, (filiforme). ‘The fig is, properly speaking,
not a fruit, but a closed receptacle, (receptaculum
clausum), in which are contained the flowers, fig.
219, 220.

In Dorstenia, the common receptacle is said to be
placentiforme, fig. 123. Vhe Mithridatea guadrifida
has a similar receptacle.

&®

Il. OF

IY. OF CLASSIFICATION.

ui

Tuz human mind is unable to take in the various
forms of the vegetable kingdom at one view: it
must therefore have recourse to some particular
assistance in order to acquire more easily the know-
ledge it aspires at, and to satisfy its curiosity. It
attains its object in the most perfect manner when it
reduces its knowledge to a system. ;

System is a record of all the plants hitherto dis-
covered, arranged according to certain characters,
with their deviations. When a person has once ac-
customed himself to some system, his progress will
be doubled, and he wil form a much better judge-
ment of plants than he was able to do beiore.

§ 120.

‘There have been men of high abilities who have
maintained, that all nature might be reduced to sys-
tem; there have, on the contrary, been other great

2 men

CLASSIFICATION. 129

men who have denied the truth of this position, and
have disdained all systematic arrangement, or even
the least trace of it. Others again, and indeed the
greater number, believe that there is no real system.
of nature, but that there is a chain of being.

Nature connects the most multifarious bodies by
their forms, their size, their;colours and their qua-
lities. Each particular body, each plant has some
affinity with others.. But who is able to declare the
order followed by nature? All affinities and natural
orders are but apparent traces of a natural system.
By a more accurate investigation, we find those
boasted aflinities not so great, and the natural or-
ders not so clear. We endeavour, by systematic
divisions, to arrange bodies in straight lines; but
nature forms in the whole an intricate and infinite
ramification, which we are too short-sighted to per-
ceive, and too superficial to:fathom. | Perhaps in
some centuries hence,) when every corner of the
elobe has ‘been examined, and numerous experi-
ments have distinguished what is true from what is
false, we may be’able to judge more soundly of the
order of nature.

F 121

But though a true natural system, has not been
discovered, it cannot be denied that some plants are
allied by such very striking resemblances, that they
may be considered as belonging to natural classes.
Those resemblances, however, extend but to few
plants, and there are many wanting to connect one
natural family with another. These affinities, how-

he ever,

130 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ever, have been sufficient to enable botanists to ar-
range plants by their external characters, and this
arrangement has been called a Natural System,
(Systema naturale).

Other botanists have founded their systems on
the number, proportion and agreement of minute
and not very obvious parts, and such a system has
been called artificial, (systema artificiale).

Others again select the sexual parts as the distince-
tive characters, and found their system on the num-
ber and variety of these parts. his is called the
Sexual System, (systema sexuale).

Sli

Some of those natural families of plants, which
the beginner ought to be well acquainted with, are
the following :

1. The rune; these are distinguished from
other plants by their peculiar form, which is com-
monly fleshy, coriaceous, or woody, fig. 4, 6, 7, 223,
294, 225, |

2. The ALGAE come somewhat near in their ap-
pearance to other plants; but neither stem nor
leaves are to be found in them. ‘Their form is very
various; sometimes they have the appearance of
flour or fibres; or they resemble the fret-work in
architecture, fig. 3, 226.

38. The musci, Mosses. In these the external
appearance is almost the same with that of other
plants, but their fruit and leaves are different.
They are divided into,

a. Musci frondosi: these have a capsule which
1s

CLASSIFICATION. 13]

is furnished with a lid, and the leaves are
small, fig. 138.

5. The Musci hepaitci: these in general have no
stem; their leaves grow larger, and lie flat:
The capsule bursts into several valves, fig. 127.

4. The rizices, Ferns, are plants that never
push from the root more than one leaf on a foot-
stalk, (some Indian species excepted), and the leat
at its evolution is generally rolled up in a spiral.
Their fructification is either m a spike, (spicifera),
fig. 9, or on the back of the leaf, (epiphyllosperme
s. dorsifiore), fig. 15.3 or lastly, on the root in the
form of a knob, (rhizosperme).

5. The GRamina, Grasses. These have their
leaves long and slender, their stem, which is called
straw, is commonly jointed, and each flower bears
but one seed: the flower likewise is very different
from that of other plants, fig. 34.

G. The yinia, Lilies, have bulbous or tuberous
roots, long, slender leaves, specious flowers, without
calyx, or instead of it a spatha.

7. The PALMAE, palms; these have an arboreous
stem, but never branches; the leaves rise from the
stem, which is called stipes. ‘The flowers issue from
a spatha.

8. PLANTAE, plants are all that do not come under
the above divisions; they are either Herbs, Under-
shrubs, Shrubs, or Trees.

a. Herbe, are all such plants as bear flowers
and seeds but once, and then die. They
do this either in one year, and are then
called Annuals, (plante annue@); or they

12 bear

132 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY. ETC.

bear in the first year leaves, in the second

' flowers and seeds, and then die: these are
called biennials, (planie biennes.)

6. Under-shrubs, (sufrutices): im these the stem
perishes annually, but the root remains.

¢. Shrubs, (frutices): of these the stem con-
tinues many years, and is divided below into
branches.

d. ‘Vrees, (arvores): of these the stem endures
for many years, and is divided at top into
branches.

Climate and culture have great influence on these
divisions ; so that often trees and shrubs insensibly
run into one another.

§ 123.

Before we proceed to treat of the different sys-
tems, it is necessary to explain what 1s meant by
Class, Order, Genus, Species and Variety. ;

A. System is rst divided into classes and orders.
In each system a certain part of plants, such as the
flower, the fruit, &c. is assumed as the foundation,
and upon that, classes, orders, and genera are con-
structed. When a particular investigated character
is common to many plants, these plants make a
Class, (classis), Should some of the plants, . be-
side the particular character of the class, agree in
another character, these form an Order, (ordo).
And if a few of the plants, which already agree
in two of the characters, are found to possess others
in common, these are called a Genus. . Each of the
plants. in this last division is called a Species. It 1s

A; necessary —

CLASSIFICATION. 13:

necessary in a species that it remain always the same
from seed. A Variety, (varictas), is a species that
differs only in colour, size, or in some accidental
circumstance. From the seed the variety changes
at last into the ‘true species. Of this» more (im
§ 182.

§ 124.

From a good system we ey thatithe part se-
lected, (eran to which. the classes, orders and
_ genera are framed, shall be-easily seen, and without
difficulty found; and that it shall be common to all
plants, and not subject to variation. . Besides, no
system ought to be divided according to pe other
character than that first selected... No good system
should have too many subdivisions, and, i possible,
should only consist of classes and orders, The

orders should) likewise..be founded only on one

part.

§ 125.

For a beginner it is very convenient to be ac-
quainted with several systems, cepaellye iviat the
same time he knows the defects of each, that he
may be able, by his own experience, to have re-
course to that which particularly suits bim. I shall
here give a view of the principal systems, m the
language in which they were originally written ; and
sHowies any term occur which is not to be caus
in the preceding Terminology, 1 shall briefly ex-

plain it.

ie § 126,

134: PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETc.

§ 126.

CAESALPINUS was the first botanist who invented
a system. He selected the fruit, and the situation
of the corculum, as the distinguishing characters.
His system has fifteen classes, wiz.
1. Arbores, corculo ex apice seminis.
2. a basi seminis.
3. Herbz, solitariis seminibus. —

Ai) rere nseee eee HN ACCISH
[Sy ieee capsulis.
6. —---— bifils seminibus.:

Te ec capsulis.
8. ———--- triplici ae fhibrosz.
_— - bulbose.
10. -———~--- quaternis seminibus.
11, ———--- pluribus seminibus. Anthemides.

LQ. —eenee

— Cichoracez s. A-
cantacese. |
--- flore communi.

14) ees Tollicwits:

Gy --- flore fructuque carentes.

This system is for our times, when such a multi-
tude of plants have been discovered, no longer of use.
Considered as the first attempt at system It is en-
titled to great consideration. ‘The fruit 1s a very
constant part, and this classification would be par-
ticularly commendable, if plants and trees had not
been separated.. In the two first classes trees are
distinguished according to the situation of the cor-
culum; the other classes are arranged according to
the fruit of the plants. The eighth and ninth classes

g ? have

CLASSIFICATION. PSY

have a trilocular capsule, and are distinguished ac-
cording to the situation of the corculum; the other
classes are arranged according to the fruit of the
plants. The eighth and ninth classes have a trilo-
cular capsule, and are distinguished according as
the root is either fibrous or bulbous. ‘The eleventh,
twelfth, and thirteenth classes contain the compound
fiowers, (§ 80, No. 3); the twelfth, semifloscular
flowers, (§ 80, No. 1); the thirteenth, discoid
flowers, (§ 80, No. 2). ‘The fourteenth class con-
tains such plants as bear several capsules together,
as the ranunculus, anemone, &c. ‘The last class in-
cludes Mosses, Algae, Fungi fand Filices. The an-
cients believed that these plants carried neither
flowers nor seeds.

5 127.

Morison constructed _ his system according to
the flower, and the external appearance of the plant.
He has eighteen classes :

1. Lignosz, Arbores.
Sees STIL LILIGES:

—~--- Suffrutices.
Herbaceze, Scandentes.
---- Leguminosz.
ene OLIGuOSz.
———--- ‘Tricapsulares.
————--- a numero capsularum dictee.
ae Corymbiferz.
———--- Lactescentes, s. papposz.
——--——-- Culmiferz s. Calmariz.
————-s-——= Umbelliferae,

I 4 13, Hers

tenn
ONO Je aS ot a So tS

a!
iS bowed
e

136" PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

13. Herbacee, Tricocess:'”

14. —— Galeatee.

Ui) eS Multicapsulares,
i6.—— Baeciferes.

if) ea Capillares.

13. ~ommne LTeteroclites.

The defect of this system, as of all the old sys-
tems, consists in the various foundations of the di-
vision, and in separating trees and plants. By Suf-
frutices, Morison means small shrubs, but not ac-
cording to our definition, (§ 122) “Even some mo-
derns use the term suffruice for a small shrub.” ‘The
fourth class contains all twining plants, as the Cu-
curpita, Convolvulus, &¢. The seventh «lass: in-
cludes plants which have a trilocular capsule. In
the eighth class are plants that have sometimes more,
sometimes fewer cells in the capsules. ‘Whe ninth
class contais the compound flowers that Rave no
pappus, or at least only a membranaceous one. “In
the tenth class are all the ‘compound flowers that
have a plumose, pilose, setaceous, &c. pappus. ‘To

the eleventh class belong all the grasses and ‘plants
allied te them; to the tweltth, the umbelliverous
plants; to the thirteenth, those which have a trilo-
cular capsule, and which seem to consist of three
separate capsules, (§ 102, No. 3). ‘The fourteenth
class contains the ringent ‘or labiated flowers; the
seventechth contains only the Filices; and the
eighteenth includes the Mosses, Algae, Fungi and
Corals. It is to be’ regretted that Morison often
arranges plants in ‘a _ Class to which they do not

belong.

CLASSIFICATION, >: 137

§ 128.
HeRMANN made use of the fruit, of the flower,
and ae but on few occasions, of the external ap-
pearance, ur framing his system.

Herba gymnosperme.

>, MORO eh .

Disperme.

. Letrasperme.

. Polyspermz.

Horbe Angiospermae.

8. Bulboss.

rapsula unica.
10. Capsule binee.
, owes tres.
2 —————— GQuatwor.
13, —+-=~ quinque.
Siligua.
5. Legumen.
Multicapsulares.
Carnosee.

Apetala.

Calyculate.
20. Glumoszee,
21. Nude,

Simplices.
Composite.
Stellatee.
Umbellatee.
Asperifolize.
Verticillatee.

Gymn polyspermz p

Pricap
Univasculares.
Bry Wik scular es.

sulares.

Trivasculares.
Ouadri
Oum@uevasculares.

ivasculares.

Siliquosze.
Leguminose.
Multivasculares.
Baccifers.

Pomiferze.

Apetalze.
Staminee.
Muscosee.

Arbores.

138 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Arbores.
22. Incomplete. Julifere.
23. Carnoseze. Umbilicate.
24., — Non Umbilicate.
25. Non carnosee. Fructu sicco.

This system is to be preferred to those already
mentioned ; only the separation of trees and plants —
is reprehensible. But to make it useful in the pre-
sent times, it would need great amendment. The
above enumeration of the classes renders any fur-
ther explanation unnecessary.

UES),

CHRISTOPHER KnaurT has also chosen the fruit
as the foundation of his system, but with this dif-
ference, that he has taken into account the number
of the petals and the regularity of the flower. His
system has a great resemblance to the first of Ray.

§ 130.

BorRHAAVE has constructed his system partly
from that of Hermann, Tournefort and Ray. He
too has separated trees and plants. The number
of the capsules, of the petals, and of the cotyledons
is made use of. |

§ 131.

Ray conjoins fruit, flower, and external appear.
ance, like his predecessors. As his system has
something peculiar, I shall here detail it.

1. Herbe,

CLASSIFICATION. 139

- Arbores,

ee eee

Foxe “asre posse

Submarine.

Fungi.

Musci.

Capillares,
Apetalz.
Planipetale.
Discoidez.
Corymbiferee.
Capitatz.
Solitario semine.
Umbellifere.
Stellatee.
Asperifoliz.
Verticillate.
Polyspermee.
Pomiferze.
Bacciterae.
Multisiliquee.
Monopetalz.
Di—Tripetale..
Siliquose.
Leguminosae.
Pentapetala.
Florifere.
Staminez.
Anomale.
Arundinacez.
Apetalee.
Fructu umbilicato.
—— non umbilicato.

SFO CO),

Bey Ar-

140 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

82. Arbores, Fructu siliquoso.
33. ——--- Anomale.

The old system of Ray has only twenty-five
classes, and is consequently more imperfect than
this improved one. He still retains the old division
of trees and plants. In the first class stand all the
Fuci, Zoophytes and Corals. In the fifth all plants
that have no petals; in the sixth the semifloscular
flowers, (§ 80, No. 1.); in the seventh the discoid
and radiate flowers that have a pilose pappus ; in the
eighth class are those same flowers, but which have
no pappus; and in the ninth class stand all those
_ capitate compound flowers which have a membrana-

ceous pappus. ‘The twelfth class contains plants
with verticillated flowers, that at the same time have
a corolla of four petals and two naked seeds. Un-
der the thirteenth class are arranged all the rough-
leaved plants, that bear a monopetalous tubular co-
volla, and four naked seeds. ‘Yo the fourteenth be-
long the labiated or ringent flowers. ~In-the twenty-
fourth class stand all the Lilies. To the twenty-
fifth belong all the Grasses, and to the twenty-sixth
those which cannot be reduced under any of the

foregoing.

§ 139.
CAMELLUS ‘has attempted a very singular sys-
tem, from the valves of the capsule and their num-
ber. It is not, however, on account of its shortness,
of great use.
1. Pericarpia, Atora,
a ise (ata Unitora,

CLASSIFICATION: 14d

3. Pericarpia, Bifora.

Aidrnete lous uy Tritora.

Bia ichvegetes "Tetrafora.

Garckgeteesds Pentafora.

dhe aguatelue. Hexafora.
§ 133.

Rivinus. selects only the corolla, the regularity
of the petals, and their number.

Flores regulares.

1. Monopetali.
2. Dipetali.,

3. Tripetali.

4. ‘Tetrapetali.
5. Pentapetali.
6. Hexapetali.
7. Polypetali.

flores. compositi.
8- Ex flosculis regularibus.
9. Ex flosculis regularibus et irreculari-
bus.
10. Ex flosculis irregularibus.

Flores irregulares.
11. Monopetali.
12. Dipetali.
13. Tripetali.
14, ‘Tetrapetali.
15. Pentapetali.
16. Hexapetali.
17. Poly-

142 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

17. Polypetali.
18. Flores incompleti.—Impertecti.
This system is very easily understood, and the se-

lected character is to be found without any trouble.
But the regularity of the corolla, which often varies
in the different species of a genus, and the number
of petals, which likewise not unfrequently vary,
make it difficult in practice. The orders are taken.
from the fruit according as it is naked, (fructus
nudus), or contained in a pericarp; and this last is
distinguished according as it 1s dry (pericarpium sic-
cum), or fleshy (pericarpium carnosum).

§ 184.

CHRISTIAN KnauT has adopted Rivinus’s me-
thod almost unchanged, but in some degree re-
versed. ‘The classes he forms from the number of
the petals, and his subdivisions he takes from their
regularity or irregularity. But he denied that there
were any flowers without a corolla, or that there
was such a thing as naked seeds.

§ 135.
The System of TouRNEFORT was for a consi-
derable time the favourite system of all botanists,
and it deserves particular attention.

Herbe et suffrutices.

1. Floribus monopetalis campaniformibus.
----——~ infundibuliformibus et

Pa (ote area msinin rd
rotatis.
yn a anomalis.

4, Flor-

CLASSIFICATION. 143

4, Floribus monopetalis labiatis.

at — polypetalis cruciformibus.
6. rosaceis.
7.-—_—_ — umbellatis.

8. ———— — caryophyllecis.
9 ee ) iiliaceis:

10. ——- ——--——__ papilionaceis.
Lae AMOI Al IS.
OS flosculosis.

13. - semiflosculosis.

14. <- radiatis.

£55) = apetalis et stamineis.

16. Qui floribus carent et semine donantur.
17. Quorum flores et fructus conspicui desi-
derantur.
Arbores et frutices.

18. Floribus apetalis.

i9, —————- amentaceis.
20. —————_ monopetalis.
21, ——-—- rosaceis.

22. — papilionaceis.

The form of the corolla, which Tournefort pro-
perly employs as the ground-work of his system,
appears to make it very easy and intelligible. But
the figure of the corolla is so various that it is often
with difficulty described. Besides, some species of
corolla so much resemble others that they are not
easily distinguished. It is on this account chiefly
that Tournefort’s system is not used in these days.
The orders in his method are taken from. the style
and from the fruit, When the germen is under the

flowe’,

144. PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

flower, he says “ calyx abiit in fructum’?; when it ie
included in the flower he says “¢ pistillum abiit in
“<< fructum.’ ‘The fruit is also more accurately dis-
tinguished, as it is a capsule, berry, &c:

§ 136.

We shall here pass by several of the less im-
portant systems that are merely alterations of the
foregoing. ‘These alterations consist sometimes of a
single circumstance, of which the former authors
had taken no notice. Of this PowreprrRa may
serve as an instance: He took’ Tournefort’s sys-
tem, and combining it with that of Rivinus, only
separated the plants that) bear buds from those that
have none. Another more worthy of consideration
is that of Macnotius; though it too is of little
use in practice. He forms his classes intirely on the
calyx. Many similar systems may be found in
ADANSON, an emment naturalist, «who has con-
structed upwards of sixty systems, and has shewn
evidently that many more might be imagined, if
science was to derive any benefit from the labour.

Cu '7:

‘The systems we have’ detailed are either built on
the fruit or the flower, and their parts: but none
before GLepirscu had attempted one on the situa-
fion of the stamina. His classes are the following :

1. Thalamostemonis.
2. Petalostemonis.
3. Calycostemonis.

CLASSIFICATION, 145

4, Stylostemonis. -
5. Cryptostemonis.

The insertion of the stamina here form the classes :
in the first class they stand on the receptacle ; 1m the
second oa the corolla ; im the third on the calyx; in
the fourth on the style; and to the fifth class be-
long plants whose flowers are inconspicuous, as the
Filices, Musci, Algee and Fungi. The orders are
formed according to the number of the anthere ;
that is, whether they are one or more in a single
flower, viz. Monantherz, Dianthere, &c. But as
there are so few classes, it is obvious that the orders
must have many subdivisions; and this is the only
objection to this, otherwise, very elegant system, which
indeed stands in the way of its further usefulness.

The same system has been lately somewhat changed
by Monch. His classes are,

1, Uhalamostemon.

2. Petalostemon.

3. Parapetalostemon, 7.¢. when the stamina
stand upon leaves similar to petals, which
are found in the corolla.

4. Calycostemon.

5. Allagostemon, when the stamina stand al-
ternately on the calyx and petals. |

6. Stylostemon, when they stand,on the style.

7. Stigmatostemon, when they are inserted in
the stigma.

8. -Cryptostemon.

The orders he has;taken from the differences in
the fruit ; but as some classes wera too large, he

AK was

\

i4to PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

was obliged to take his subdivisions from other parts _
of the flower. |
§ 138.

HALLER endeavoured, very ingeniously, to frame
a natural system on the cotyledons, the calyx, the
corolla, the stamina, and the sexes of plants. His
classes, of which he afterwards found it necessary
to make some little alteration, are ie following :.

i. Fungi.
2. Miusci.
3. Epiphyllospermee.
4. Apetalee.
5. Gramina.
6. Graminibus aflinia.
7. Monocotyledones Petaloidez.
8. Polystemones.
9. Diplostemeones.
10. Hostemones. —
11. Mejostemones.
12. Staminibus sesquialteris.
13, —---—--— sesquitertiis.
14, ——_---- quatuor, ringentes.
15. Congregate.

Vo the third class belong all the Filices. ‘To the
seventh all the Lilies: Inthe eighth class stand all
those plants whose filaments exceed in number the
segments or petals of the corolla three or four times.
To the ninth class belong all those plants which
have twice as many filaments as there are segments
or petals in the corolla. To the tenth belong those
that have the same number of filaments as there are
segments or petals in the corolla. In the elventh

class

CLASSIFICATION: | 147
class are included all those plants whose filaments '
are fewer in number than the segments or petals of
the corolla. To the twelfth belong all the cruci-
form plants; to the thirteenth, all the papiliona-
ceous; and to the fourteenth, the ringent or la-
biated flowers with four stamina. The last class
contains all the compound flowers. The orders in
this system are taken from all parts of the flower
and of the fruit.

Roven and WacHENDoRF have constructed si-
milar systems, the first of which deserves the pre-
ference. But all these systems are attended with
difficulty, on account of the various parts of plants
which we must have constantly in view, and the
great number of subdivisions which thev neces-
sarily require. :

§ 139.

Linnaeus, in his System, has fixed upon the

stamina as the foundation of his divisions.
1. Monandria. 13. Polyandria,
2. Diandria. 14. Didynamia.
3. Triandria. 15. Tetradynamia.
4, Tetrandria. 16. Monadelphia.
5. Pentandria. 17. Diadelphia.
6. Hexandria. 18. Polyadelphia.
7
8
9

. Heptandria. 19, Syngenesia.
- Octandria. 20. Gynandria.
. Enneandria. 21. Monoecia.
10. Decandria. 22. Dioecia,
11. Dodecandria.. 23. Polygamia.
12. Icosandria. 24, Cryptogamia.
Kae From

148 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

From the first tothe ‘tenth class the stamina are
numbered, fig. 95, 79, 415, 61,163, 164, 110,
126. ‘To the eleventh class belong all the :plants
that have above above ten to ninetcen stamina. ‘Yo
the twelith class those plants which have many
stamina imserted an the calyx, fig. 52, 53. The
thirteenth ‘class contains plants that have a great
nuniber of stamina from twenty to ene thousand in
one flower, fig. 116. The fourteenth consists of
plants that have four stamina m one flower, of which
two are longer than the rest, fig. 50, 51. In the
fifteenth class stand those which have six stamina,
of which two are shorter than the rest, fig. 145,
149. The sixteenth class contains plants whose
filaments are connected and form a cylinder, fig.
56, 57. In the seventeenth class stand those plants
whose filaments are united in two parcels, fig. 108,
109. ‘Yo the eighteenth class belong those plants
whose filaments are united in several parcels, fig.
150. In the nineteenth class stand those plants
whose antherse are united in a cylinder. ‘The
twentieth class consists of those plants whose sta-
mina stand upon the style; the twenty-first consists
of flowers of different sexes, namely, male and _fe-
male on one plant; the twenty-second, of male and
female flowers, but so divided that one plant bears
only male flowers, the other only female; the twen-
ty-third has flowers of both sexes and hermaphrodite
flowers together, so that the plant contains either
male and hermaphrodite flowers or female and her-
maphrodite flowers. To the Jast class belong all

plants

CLASSIFICATION, 149

plants whose flowers are not visible to the naked
eye, these are the Filices, Musci, Algee and Fungi.

§ 140.

Lhe Orders in most of the classes are taken from
the style, in some from the fruit, and in the last classes
from the filaments. From the first to the thirteenth
class the orders are taken from the style, viz. mono-
gynia when there is only one style ia the flower,
fig) 1145/1155 116, 144,153;5, de.) | wwo, three,
four, &c. styled, (di, tri, tetra, <r. polygynia), ac-
cording to their number, fig. 135. In general we
count to six, and then say polygynia. it there
should be several germens and but-one style, the
style only is numbered. ‘The orders are never taken
from the germens except when the style is wanting.
The Orders of the fourteenth class are taken from
the fruit ; there are two, viz. Gymnospermia when the
seeds are naked, and Angiospermia when they are
contained in a pericarp. Those of the fifteenth
class are, like the foregoing, taken from the fruit,
with this difference, that here there are no naked
seeds but a Siliqua, and the Orders are named ac-
cording to the size of this, sificulosa and siliquosa.
In the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, twentieth,
twenty-first and twenty-second classes, the Orders
are denominated according to the number of the
stamina; inthe 16th, 17th, 18th and 20th, they
are numbered’ trom Diandria upwards; in the 21st
and 22d from Monandria.

The 19th Class contams none but compound
flowers, except a very few. Linngus considers

K 3 these

150 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

these flewers as a Polygamy, (polygamia), and pre»
fixes this word to the name of each Order in which
the compound flowers are contained ; for example,

Polygamia aquales, when all the florets which a
compound flower contains are hermaphrodites, and
similar in form, whether they be ligulate or tubu-
lar, fig. 85, 143. |

Polygamia superflua, when the compound flower is
radiate, the disc bearing hermaphrodite florets, and:
the ray, fertile florets.

Polygamia frustranea, when the compound flower
is radiate, the disc consisting of fertile, hermaphro-
dite florets, and the ray of barren female florets.

Polygamia necessaria, when the compound. flower
is radiate, the disc consisting of barren hermaphro-
dite florets, the ray of fertile female florets.

Polygamia segregata, when in a compound flower,
besides the commen perianth, each floret is furnish-
ed with its own particular calyx.

Monogamia is an Order containing all the plants
which according to strict ee belong to this class,

though they are not compound flowers.

The plants of the 21st and 22d classes, as we
have said already, are divided into Orders accord-
ing to the number of the stamina; but besides these,

there are two orders taken from the connection of
the filaments and antherce, namely, Monadelphia and
Syngenesia. ‘The last Order of both classes is called
Gynandria; not because in the plants which belong
to it, the stamina stand upon the style; but because
in the male flowers there’ is a production resembling
a style to which the stamina are attached. ‘This

produc-

CLASSIFICATION. 1G1

production Linnzus considers as an imperfect pis-
tillum. | a

In the 23d class the Orders are called Monvecia,
Dioecia and Tricecia. The last class has the follow-
ing Orders, Filices, Musci, Algae and Fungi, (§ 122).

§ 141.

From the aforegoing analysis it will be seen that
the Linnzean system consists of an artificial and
sexual arrangement, and that it does not answer the
idea, we have given above, (§ 124), of a perfect
system. But till such a one is found out, a system
partly natural, partly artificial is the best; we must,
however, as we cannot deny the usefulness of Lin-
neeus’s system, point out its defects.

Linnzeus endeavoured, from the number of the
stamina, their various lengths, and different modes
of connection, to unite a natural classification with
an artificial one. Hence arose some faults, which
would not have happened had he, at the same time,
made use of the corolla as’ a character. For in-
stance, in the fourteenth class are contained the la-
biated and ringent flowers; but because Linnzus
characterised it from the four stamina, two of which
are shorter; there are some of these plants which
must stand in the second class, and others in the
fourth, though they properly belong to this class.
In the same manner, all the papilionaceous flowers
are referred to the seventeenth class; but the as-
sumed character, vz. that the filaments are united
into two sets, is not to be found in all these plants :
Many haye the filaments united in one cylinder ;. an

| K 4 in

152 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC. |

in the tenth class stand many plants with papiliona-
ceous flowers. These two faults are not the greatest
which may be attributed to this system: it is a more
important objection that Linneeus has numbered the -
stamina in the first classes without attending to’ their
insertion, while in the twelfth he remarks that they
are inserted in the calyx, and in the twentieth, that
they stand on the pistillum. In the nineteenth class
are comprehended all the compound flowers, and
vet he drags into the last order of this class other
plants whose antherze are only sometimes united.
ft is also to be regretted, that m the 21st, 22d and
73d classes Linnzus has taken notice of different
sexes in the same plant, which he had not done be-
tore; there being many plants in the former classes
that properly belong to these.

§ 142.

‘These defects and some others, from which no
system can easily be exempted, have suggested to
several botanists the possibility of correcting them
and making the system more useful. Among all
the improvements of the Limnzean system, those by
‘THUNBERG, seem to be the chief. He has reduced
the number of classes to twenty, by referring. the
plants of the 20th, 21st, 22d and 23d classes to
others, according to the number or connection of
the stamima. |

All the plants which stand in the 20th class ought
to have the stamina placed upon the style; but the
most of the plants arranged by Linneus in this
class want these characters, the genus of Orchis

1 alone

CLASSIFICATION. 153

atone excepted, (§ 143, No. 7). The three fol-
lowini@ classes ave not always constant with regard
to sex; a difference of climate will sometimes re-
move a plant from the class Monoecia to that of
Polygamia.

Linjesap has made the followme changes on
the Linnzan system. He joins the 7th, sth and
9th classes to the 10th. His Decandria thus con-
tains the Heptandria, Octandria, Enneandria and
Decandria of Linneus.. The 11th class he joins to
the 13th. ‘The 1sth, 21st, 22d, and 23d he m-
cludes in one. ‘Thus his system contains only
sixteen classes, viz.

1. Monandria. 9. Polyandria.
2, Diandria. 10. Gynandria.
3. Vriandria. 11. Didynamia.
4, ‘Yetrandria. 12. ‘Tetradynamia.
5. Pentandria. 13, Monadelphia.
6. Hexandria. 14, Diadelphia.
7. Decandtia. 15, Syngenesia.
8. Tcosandria. 16. Cryptogamia,

Some other botanists have changed the orders of
the 19th class, by leaving out the word Polyeamia,
and removing’ the plants of the order Monocamia
to’ other classes.

But this order of the 19th class ought to be al-
together suppressed ; because the genera belonging to

it have nothing in common with the other syngene-
sious flowers but the united anthera, which other
genera, for instance the solanum, possess likewise.
Uf this order be taken away the class becomes per-
fectly natural.

OCHREBER,

154 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

SCHREBER, in the last edition of the Genera Plan-
tarum, has changed the Orders of the 24th class, as
follows :

1, Miscellanez.
2. Filices.

3. Musci.

4, Hepatic.
5. Algae.

6. Fungi.

It-would be superfluous here to take notice of
other alterations which do not tend to the improve-
ment of the science.

§ 143,

Besides the knowledge of different eens! it is
very useful for a beginner to have some idea of the
natural affinities of plants. He is thus, in the in- —
vestigation of unknown plants, more easily led into
the right track. We are indeed far behind in this
branch of knowledge, and the little we know is
very imperfect : but that little may be of great assist-
ance to us in the investigation of plants, because bo-
tanists in their descriptions often make use of ex-
pressions by which plants of particular allied fa-
milies are ascertained. Linnzeus has left us the fol-
lowing arrangement of Natural Orden

1. Raley S22. «

2. Piperita. The flowers of this order are crowded
into a close spike, as Piper, Arum, &c.

3. Calmaria. To this. order belong all the
Grass-like plants, which differ from the true Grasses

by

CLASSIFICATION. - 15%

by their unjointed stem, such as Typha, Sparga-
nium, Carex, Schoenus, &c.

4, Gramina.. All the proper Grasses, § 122, 5

5. Tripetaloidee. These have either three petals, or
the calyx has three foliola, as in Juncus, Alisma, &c.

6. Ensate. Lilies, whose leaves are ensiform or
sword-shaped, and their corolla monopetalous, are
of this order, as Iris, Gladiolus, &c. ‘

7. Orchideea, whose roots are fleshy, but the
flowers are either furnished with a spur or with a
corolla of a singular construction. ‘The filaments
and style are obscure, and the germen is below the
flower. |

8. Scitaminee have a herbaceous stem, very broad
leaves, a three-cornered, or at least a blunt-cornered
germen, under a liliaceous corolla ; as in Amomum,
Canna, Musa, &c.

Oo Spathacee, are Lilies, which have their lowers
contained ina large spatha j ; as in Allium, Nar
_cissus, &c.

10. Coronarie, Lilies that have no spatha, but
have a corolla with six petals; as in Tulipa, Or-
nithogalum, Bromelia, &c.

11. Sarmentacee, that have very weak stems and
liliaceous flowers, as Gloriosa, Smilax, Asparagus, &c.

12. Oleracea, that have plain flowers, 1. €. OL NO
beauty, as in Blitum, Spinacia, Petiveria, Herniaria,
Rumex, &c.

13. Succulenta, that have very thick, fleshy leaves,
as in Cactus, Mesembryanthemum, &c.

14. Gruinales have a pentapetalous corolla, seve-

ral

156 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETCos

ral pistils, and a long pointed capsule, as in Linuny,:
Geranium, Oxalis, &c.

15. Inundate, grow under water with flowers of
no beauty, as Hippuris, Zanichellia,, Ruppia, Po-
tamogeton, &c.

16. Calyciflore, that have only a calyx, im which
the stamina are inserted, as in Eleagnus, Osyris,
Hippophae, &c.

17. Calycantheme. Yn these the calyx is seated
on the germen or grows to it, and the flowers are
very beautiful, as in Epilobium, Gaura, Oenothera,
Lythrum, &c.

18. Bicornes, have the antherze furnished: with
two long, straight pomts or horns, asin Ledum,
Vaccinium, Erica, Pyrola, &c.

19. Hesperides, these have strong ever-green leaves,
sweet-smelling Howers, and many stamina, as in Myr-
tus, Psidium, Eugenia, &c.

90. Rotacee, bearing a wheel-shaped corel as
in Anagallis, Lysimachia, Phlox, &c.

21. Precia, that have specious flowers which ap-
pear early m the spring, as Primula, Androsace,
Diapensia, &c. |

22. Caryophyllee, those having a monophyllous
tubular calyx, a pentapetalous corolla, ten stamina,
and long ungues to the petals, as Dianthus, Sapon-
aria, Agrostemma, &c.

23. Tribilate, these have a style with three stig.
mata, and winged or ee capsules, as Melia,
Banisteria, &c.

24, Corydales. Vhe flowers of these have either

| a spur,

CLASSIFICATION. Alay

a spur, (calearaie), or are of a singular form, as in’
Epimedium, Pinguicula, &c.

25. Putaminee, that bear fruit in a hard shell, as
in Capparis, Morisonia, &c.

26. Muttisilique, bearing many siliques, as in
Paeonia, Trollius, Caltha,' &c.:

27. Rhocadea, that have a caducous calyx, ‘and a
capsule or silique, as in Argemone, Chelidonium,
Papaver, &c. | |

28. Luride, that have commonly a monopetalous
corolla, a pericarpium and five stamina. ‘They are
endowed for the most part with poisonous or dan-
gerous qualities, as Datura, Solanum, &c.

29. Campanacea; these have bell- shaped flowers,
as the Campanula, Convolvulus, &c.

30. Contort@; im these the corolla 1s twisted, or
the stamina and pistils are covered with leaves re-
sembling petals; as in Nerium, Asclepias, &c.

31. Vepreculg, have amonophyllous calyx, colour.
ed likea corolla; as nm Dirca, Daphne, Gnidia, &c.

32. Papilionacee; these include the papilionaceous
flowers, (§ 76, No. 7), as Vicia, Pisum, Phaseo-
lus, &c. |

33. Lomentacea; these bear a legumen or lomen.
tum, but not a papilionaceous flower, as Mimosa,
Cassia, ‘Ceratonia, Gleditsia, &c. |

34. Cucurbiiacee@, whose fruit is a pepo or pump-
kin, and im general they have-united stamina, as
om Cucumis, Bryonia, Passiflora, &c.

35. Senticose have a polypetalous corolla, and
the fruit consists of a number of seeds, either
naked or slightly covered, ‘The leaves and stems

are

158 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

are either hairy or prickly, as in Potentilla, Alche-
milla, Rubus, Rosa, &e.

36. Pomacee, have many stamina inserted in the
calyx, and a drupa or apple for fruit, as ‘Sorbus,
Amyegdalus, Pyrus, &c.

37. Columniferg; 1 these the stamina unite and.
form a long tube, as in Malva, Althzea, PDbis-
cus, Wc.

38. Tricocce, bearing a trilocular capeiiles § 102,
No. 5, as Euphorbia, Tragia, Ricinus, &c.

39. Siliquose, bearing a silique or a silicle, § 108.
as Thlaspi, Draba, Raphanus, &c.

40. Personate, bearing a masked or personate
flower, (§ 75, No. 13), asin Antirrhinum, &c.

41. Asperifolig; these have four naked seeds, a
monopetalous corolla, five stamina, and rough leaves,
as in Echium, Symphytum, Anchusa, &c.

42. Verticillate ; these have labiated or ringent
flowers, as Thymus, Monarda, Nepeta, &c. |

43. Dumose; these are shrubby plants, and their
stem is furnished with a soft medulla or pith; their.
flowers are small, the petals with four or five lacinia,
as in Viburnum, Rhamnus, Euonymus, &c.

44, Sepiarie ; shrubs, commonly with a tubular
and laciniated corolla, and few stamina, in general
only two, as in Syringa, Ligustrum, Jasminum,
raxinus, &c. |

45, Umbellata, bearing an umbel of flowers, a pen-
tapetalous corolla, five stamina, two styles, and two
naked seeds; as in Apium, Pastinaca, Daucus, &c.

46. EHederacee; these have a quinquefid corolla,
five or ten stamina, and a Hoh like a berry, ona

compound

CLASSIFICATION. 159

compound racemus; as in Hedera, 5 ee Vitis,
Cissus, Aralia, Zanthoxylon. .

47, Stellate; these have a quadrifid corolla, four
stamina, and two naked seeds. he leaves are
commonly verticillated; as in Galium, Asperula,
Valantia, &c. |

48. <Aggrevatae; these appear like compound
flowers, but have no united antherz ; as Scabiosa,
Cephalanthus, &c. :

49. Composite ; this order contains all the com-
pound flowers ; -wid. § 76.

50. Amentacee ; this contains:those plants whose
fruit is a catkin; wid. § 64.

51. Conifere ; this contains those that bear a stro-
bilus, § 113; as Pinus, Juniperus, &c.

52. Coadunate; those which bear several berries -
or similar fruit united in one, as in Annona, Uvaria,
Magnolia, &c.

53. Scabridz, that bear rough leaves and flowers of
no beauty, as Ficus, Urtica, Parietaria, Cannabis, &c.

54. Miscellaneae; to this order belong all those
plants which cannot be referred to one or other of
the aforegoing.

55. Filices,, § 122, Nov 4.

56. Musci, § 122, No. 3.

57. Algae, § 122, No. 2.

58. Fungi, § 122, No. 1.

Many of these natural families are very artificial,
and some of them quite improper ; but most of them
have in their external appearance a great resem-
blance, which we easily comprehend, but which it
is not easy to describe. Some of these natural or-

4 deys

#60 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ders have been improved and extended. The most
successful labourers on the subject have been Barsc#
and Jusstru, but especially the latter.

Barscu has established 77 families, which, with
a few exceptions, are pretty natural. Jussizu, whe
had an opportunity of seemg a much greater num-
ber of plants, has described 100. families,

§ 144. | |
The aboye may suffice to give the beginner a
slicht idea of the most important systetas: a ge-
neral view will shew us what remains to be dene,
and will convince us, that m the innumerable and
endless varieties in the structure of plants, human.
ingenuity will never be able to contrive a perfect
system.

WT. BOs

Ill. BOTANICAL APHORISMS.

§ 145. |

‘Tu true knowledge of Plants consists in the art of
arranging, distinguishing, and naming them; and
this art depends’ on the establishment of fixed rules,
drawn from nature herself. The art of arranging
plants is called’ System or Classification, of which
we have treated in the preceding chapter; but that
of distinguishing them must be further elueidated.
For this purpose we must have an accurate knows
ledge of the Terminology, that we may be able to
apply it properly, and to employ the rules which
have beer framed from a consideration of the struc
ture of plants. This knowledge is to be acquired
by an’ accurate investigation of flowers and a fres
quent inspection of plarits generally considered,
Method, (methodus), or the knowledge of plants
from a consideration of the flower and’ its internal
structure, is the proper business of a) botanist’;
but the knowledge of the external figure}: (habitus),
amiust on no account neglect.
‘ § 146,

\

162: PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETc.

§ 146,

The flower and fruit are the most constant parts
of plants, and therefore on them should a System be
built, and from them should the characters be se-
lected. Some botanists have employed the leaves
for this purpose; but experience shews how falla-
cious such a system proves. As the flower is the
chief foundation of System, it affords likewise cha-
racters for establishing the Genera. ‘The Species,
however, must be distinguished by other chaFaciers.
than those taken from the flower.

§ 147.

The first rule, which naturally arises from the
foregoing observations, is this, that the characters
of the class must never be the same with those of
the orders, nor the characters of the orders the
same with those of the genera; but that the genera,
which stand under one order and class, must pos-
sess the characters of these without exception; as
for instance the potatoe, Solanum tuberosum. ‘This
plant stands in the fifth class of the System of Lin-
necus and first order: the characters of the fifth
class are five stamina, and of the first order one
style: the genus Solanum has the following charac-
ters: a quinquefid calyx, a ed corolla,
and a bilocular berry with many seeds. Thus if we
place the discriminating character of the genus in its
having five stamina and one style we would trans-
eress the rule, for these chavaciars are common not

only

HOTANICAL APHORISMS; 163

only to the genus Solanum, but to all those plants
which stand under the same class and order.

| § 148.

GeENus is a number of plants which agree with
one another in the structure of the flower and fruit,
(§ 123). To distinguish the genera, we describe
the flower and fruit, and such description is called
the character: this is threefold, the natural, the fac-
titious and essential, (character naturalis, factitius, et

essentialis).
The natural character, (character naturalis), 18 a
description at large of the flower and fruit of a
plant, made according to the rules of ‘Terminology,
and serving for all the plants of a genus. Sucha
description it is very difficult to make; but when
once accomplished, it tends to the perpetual ascer-
tainment of the whole.

The essential character, (character essentialis), is 2
very short description of the whole genus, which
contains only the character which essentially distin-
guishes it from every other.

The factitious character, (character factitius), is an.
essential chsracter, but where the number of the
parts or some other circumstances, not of essential
importance, are taken into it.

The essential character is of great importance in
the accurate investigation of a plant, and when it is
obvious and distinct it throws great light on the
knowledge of plants, ‘The factitious character is

ni to be used when genera contain too great a
L2 number

i64 > PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

number of species, so that it becomes necessary to
subdivide them; but where it is possible this ought
to be avoided.

The essential and artificial character must be in-
cluded in the natural; when this is not the case
some of them must be Abeta

Keeping our former example of the Solanum, we
shall, in technical language, exhibit its characters.

SOLANUM.

CaLyx, perianthium monophyllum, quinquefi-
dum, erectum, acutum, persistens.

CorRoLLA, monopetala rotata. Tubus brevissi-
mus, Limbus magnus quingucidus,. reflexo- Lin
plicatus.

STAMINA, filamenta quinque, subulata, minima.
Antherze oblonge, conniventes, uae apice
poris duobus dehiscentes.

PistiLnLuMm, germen subrotundum. Stylus fill-
formis staminibus Iongior. Stigma obtusum.

Prricarpium, bacca subrotunda, glabra, apice
punctato-notata, bilocularis. Receptaculo utrinque
convexo carnoso.

Semina plurima subrotunda, nidulantia.

The above extended description. is called) a na-
tural character, and is taken from the plant: any
varieties of species are generally described sepa-
rately. When we compare this natural! character
ofthe Solanum, with others of the same class. and
order, particularly with the allied genera, of Caps
sicum, Physalis, &c. Hie following discriminating

character arises ;
SOLA:

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 165

SOLANUM.

Corolla rotata. Antherz subcoalite, apice poro
gemino dehiscentes. Bacca bilocularis.
This essential character will easily distinguish the
genus Solanum from the rest. But suppose there
‘was found a plant which had all these characters,
but had a berry that was quadrilocular ; if we were
to make of this plant a separate genus, the character
would be factitious ; for, as we shall shew afterwards
{§ 159, 160), the plant does notwithstanding bes
fong to the genus Solanum,

§ 149.

‘Nature has connected, as we have seen, (§ 120),
each particular plant with others, by certain affinities
or resemblances. ‘hese resemblances are the foun-
dation of the genera, But it is obvious that on
this account the genera are not really in nature, but
imagined by botanists as assistances to the Know-
ledge of plants. Genera must be founded only on
the flower and fruit; but the resemblances which
we observe in plants are not confined merely to
these, but are found in every other part of the
plant.

§ 150.

The establishment of genera is a necessary step
in the science ; and to attain the knowledge of them
we must attentively consider the whole structure of
the flower and of the fruit. This structure is either

it 3 natural,

166 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

natural, (structura naturalissima), or varied, (di-
ferens), or lastly, particular, (vingularis).

§ 151.

The structure is to be considered according to its
number, (numerus); figure, (figura); situation, (si-
tus); and proportion, (‘proportic): and by these we
observe whether it is natural, varied, or particular.
In genera we must always be attentive to number,
figure, situation and proportion; because without
these no genus’ can be properly ascertained. On
these are founded all the genera and most of the
rules which, in the sequel, I shall lay down.

"

6152.

The natural structure, (structura naturalissima), 1s
that form of the fruit and flower which is most fre-
quent. In the natural character it is not used; for
it serves only as a rule for the other kinds of struc-
ture. The following is the most natural structure
of the flower.

The calyx is green, shorter than the corolla, and
thicker; the corolla is tender, easily falls off, and
is surrounded by the calyx. The stamina stand
within the corolla, the antherz stand erect upon
the filaments, the pistillum is in the middle of the
flower. As to number, the calyx and corolla are
for the most part divided into five lacinize, the sta-
mina are five with one style. The laciniz or
foliola of the calyx and corolla are in general
equal in number with the stamina. ‘The fruit al-

ba ways

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 167

aways corresponds with the style; if there is but
one pistillum, the fruit is unilocular; if there are
more, there are also cells in the pericarp.

The form of the calyx in general isa cup with
erect foliola; the flower is commonly more or less
funnel-shaped ; the stamina pointed ; the pistillum is
- furnished with a slender and pointed style with a
simple stigma.

With regard to proportion, the calyx is often
about a third shorter than the corolla; the stamina
and style are hardly longer than the calyx. As to
situation, the calyx incloses the corolla and the pe-
tals are alternate with the foliola of the calyx. The
stamina stand opposite to those foliola. ‘The pistil-
lum stands on the top of the germen. The seeds
rest on the receptacle.

In a natural structure it is further observable, that
a monopetalous corolla has a monophyllous calyx,
and that a polypetalous corolla has a polyphyllous
calyx. The coroila and calyx are seated on the re-
ceptacle. In a polypetalous corolla the stamina
stand upon the receptacle; in a monopetalous, they
are inserted in the corolla itself,

This natural character ought never to enter into
descriptions. It would, for example, in the natu-
ral character of the Solanum, (§ 148), be quite
superfluous, to say, Calyx corolla minor, viridis, folia-
ceus, corolla tenera, anthere pulvere flavo farcta, ger-
men post florescentiam intumescens, %Jc.; because all
these circumstances are supposed ina natural de-
scription, where we expect to find only discrimins
ating characters. |
L 4 § 153,

168 ——s- PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

§ 153.

Our botanical knowledge would be very limited
if nature confined herself to the natural structure,
and had made all flowers and fruits according to one
form. But the contrary is the case, and we are
therefore enabled to acquire a more extensive ac-
quaintance with the vegetable kingdom. ‘Of this
the Terminology will serye as a proof; it points out
to us the deviations of plants from the natural struc-
ture ; and these deviations, when we consider merely
the Hower and fruit, exhibit the varied structure,
(structura differens), of plants. / The structure 15
the foundation of every genus; all genera and theit
characters Soper on this sti ructiire ue fie natural
ONee aa, Bh wana ee

§ 154,

The particular structure, (structura singularis), 18
that which is directly opposite to the natural one,
and affords the most beautiful characters. When}
for example, in a monopetalous corolla the stamina
stand upon the receptacle instead of being, inserted
in the corolla, we call that a singular structure; or
when the nectaria stand between ‘the corolla and the
calyx, as in Wildenowia, instead of ‘standing, as is
usual, between the corolla and the stamina.

Some other examples are delineated on the fifth
plate, which I shall here more particularly mention :
- The genus Cucullaria, fig. 112, 113, shews an
orchideous flower, wath the anthera inserted i into a
peta Wate OAR TRUSSO a eh NGM |

9 “The

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 169

‘The genus Rupala, fig. 115, has the filaments
standing at the point of the foliola of the calyx.
~ The genus Lacis, fig. 116, has neither calyx nor
corolla, but a very simple flower, consisting of many
stamina and one style.

) Dimorpha, fg. 126, appears with a single petal,
rolled up on the side. :

~Dorstenia, fig. 122, has a common receptacle, set
close with male flowers, | fig. 124, and with female
flowers, fig. 125.5 and has a particular calyx.

Sterculia, fig. 144. has a germen raised on a, long
footstalk, that i is set with cee filaments.

In the same manner are found the flowers of
‘Periploca, Asclepias and Stapelia; fig. 88, 88, 89,
90,91, 92, 28, 99, 100. Dhese are Aen ished with
par ene organs which we have described with the
Nectaria, and which quite cover the stamina with
the style. The stamina are singularly formed, the
filaments are attached like forks to a cartilaginous
body, and bear at the tip of each an anthera,
| Two genera are remarkable for the particular
structure of the floral leaf, namely Ascium and
Ruyschia, The for mer, re 117, has an ascidiform
stipitate floral leaf, (bractea ascidiformis stipitata),
which stands close behind the flower. The latter
has an ascidiform sessile bractea, (bractea ascidiformis
sessilis) furnished with two lobes, (bileba), which
surround the flower behind, |

These few instances are sufficient to shew that the
flowers above-mentioned have a particular struc.
ii are altog sether different from the common one,

Many

170 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

Many other examples will be found by an attentive
dissection of flowers.

§ 155.

From the singular structure of plants may be de-
duced the aphorism, that those genera, which have
this singular structure, are more easily ascertained
than those that come near to the natural structure.
This last extends over all the natural families of the
vegetable kingdom. ‘The umbelliferous plants, the
lilies, the papilionaceous flowers, the cruciform and
compound flowers, are, on account of the similarity
of their structure, with difficulty distinguished. For
ascertaining with facility the genera of every kina,
rules have been laid down which must be adapted
to new discovered plants. ‘There are rules which in
general are applicable to all plants, and others that
regard only particular families. But before proceed.
ing to these we shall endeavour more accurately to
define the calyx.

§ 156.

In some flowers that have but one external cover,
it is difficult to determine whether that cover is calyx
or corolla. Various methods have been devised to
ascertain this, but never with success. Indeed we
‘do not apply to any purpose the difference between
calyx and corolla; we can give them both the same
name; we may call the calyx the outer, and the
corolla the inner cover. ‘This would in uncertain
cases remove any doubt of what was calyx and what

3 | : corolla 5

BOTANICAL APHORISMS, - i7]

corolla; but we could not in description give se
proper an idea of the figure of plants. It is there-
fore better to distinguish these organs, and in doubt-
ful cases to substitute something else. According
to Linnaeus, when there is but one part present, and
the stamina stand opposite to the laciniz, that part
is considered as calyx: but when they stand alter-
nately with the laciniz, it is said to be a corolla.
‘here are however calyxes to be found where the
stamina stand alternately with the laciniz: ; and plants
that have a greater number of stamina than of laci-
nie or foliola of the calyx ; it is therefore by this rule
impossible to say whether the part be a calyx or co-
volla. Scopoxi1 thinks that when only one part is
present, it should be considered as a calyx. ‘This
rule errs against all analogy. There are genera
which have but one part; and suppose a species te
be discovered with two, the case might happen that
what was called calyx was really corolla. It is
best, therefore, to call that part calyx which is
nearly of equal length with the stamina, and is of a
green and firm substance. ‘These three circum-
stances must appear when we call the part a calyx.
What should be called corolla which is longer or as
long as the stamina, is coloured, and of a tender
substance. Particular exceptions are not to be re-
ewarded. ‘These three characters must always COll-
cur. For instance, the flowers of ‘Vhesium /inophy/-
lum have but one cover, which is somewhat longer
than the stamina, of a firm substance, green, but
white on the inner surface. ‘This cover must be
called calyx, because it is green.on the outside, and

ob

172 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

of a firm substance. In like manner in Daphne
Mezercum there is but one part, which is coloured,
much longer than the stamina but of a firm sub-
stance. ‘There are some allied genera that have yet
a smaller calyx; even some species of Daphne that
have something like a calyx ; ; and therefore this part :
in the Mezereum must be called a corolla. But
besides” the three characters given above, we ought
fo attend to the affinity with, other plants, and we
will seldom err.

§ 157.

In constructing new genera, it is necessary, ¢hat
ihe essential character be applicable to all the species
of the genus, and be subject to no variation.

As the flower and fruit of one species are formed,
so must those of all the rest be. For example, the
fruit of one cannot be a berry and of another a
drupa, though Linné has committed this mistake in
the genus Rhamnus, which properly makes two dis.
tinct genera, namely, Rhamnus and Zizyphus.

§ 158.

the character of a genus must be formed from the
number, figures situation and proportion, (S 157), of
the flower and frit.

It is only these circumstances, taken together, that
constitute genera; taken separately, they are of no
consequence. There are often species, which de- |
viate from the generic character in this or that par-
ticular; but on that account they are not to be con-
sic lered as distinct genera.

BOTANICAL APHORISMS,. 173

§ 159.

Number alone can never constitute genera, and must
never be considered as of any importance.

Nothing is more subject to variation than the
number of the stamina. Whey are often very va-
tious in the same genus. Some plants, when they
grow in arich soil, acquire one or two additional
stamina and even additional petals. Often they are
found with double the number of stamina they
ought to have; for instance, a plant has ten sta-
mina that should only have five; or contrariwise,
it has only five stamina when it should have ten.
Two often vary into four, three into six, four imto
eight, five into ten, six info twelve; in this way the
number is either increased’ or diminished. When
the structure. of the other parts perfectly corres-
ponds. with another genus, and differs only in the
number of a part of the flower, whether it be calyx,
corolla, stamina or style, it would be improper on
that account to make it a new genus.

§. 160.
When the number in all the parts of a flower is
constant, it may be used as a subordinate generic cha-
racter, but with great caution.

This rule must be used’ with great prudence. if
it can be avoided, number must not’ be resorted to.
Liinné has given: one example’ of this rule in the
genera of Potentilla and Tormentillas Number dis-
tinguishes these two artificial genera: the first: has.a
double pentaphyllous calyx and a‘ pentapetalous co-
| rolla.

174: PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &TC.

rolla: The calyx and corolla indeed remain con:
Stant in their number in both genera; but this ex-
ample ought not to be imitated.

§ 161. :

The monophyllous and palyphyHous calyx may consti
tute genera; but not the number of the lacinia or
leaves. The same thing may be said of the corolla.

There are some families in which the calyx is of
importance; but in these the number of the la:
ciniz or foliola is not taken into account. If twe
plants resemble one another, but the one has a mo-
nophyllous and the other a polyphyllous calyx, they
must be considered as different genera. The reason
of which is, that a monophyllous calyx never

changes into a polypetalous one; but the number

of the foliola of a polypetalous calyx, or the num-
ber of laciniz ma monophyllous one may be sub:
ject to variation. ‘The same rule applies to the co-
rolla.

§ 162.
The number of the stamina must be ascertained by
the greatest number of flowers; but if the flower first

evolved differs in number of stamina from the rest, we

must reckon by it.

‘The flowers of some plants are not always con-

stant in the number of stamina; in this case we
must be guided by the greater number ; after, how-
ever, examining a considerable quantity of flowers.
Sometimes indeed there appears a variety in the
number of stamina, the first evolved flower having

more

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 173

more than the rest. In this case we must reckon by
the first flower, as it is in general the most perfect.
In numbering the stamina it is likewise adviseable to
consider its aflinity with other plants. As examples
we refer to Ruta; Monotropa, and Chrysosplenium.

§ 163.

Too many genera are not to be mades

This rule is one.of the most important. Many
genera are a manifest disadvantage to the science.
Generic differences are not too nicely to be sought
for. It is the first duty of a botanist to make the
science as easy and attainable as possible; but by a
too refined exhibition of generic distinctions he will
do it more harm than good.

If we consider as essential every small variation in
the structure of flower and fruit, the number of ge-
nera will be multiplied, and the difficulty of the
science increased. To this fault those are most
prone who have seen fewest plants. When they
have seen more, they will discover the intermediate
plants which unite the different genera, and thus be
_ forced to join what they formerly separated. I shall
only here specify the genus Fumaria, several species
of which have a differently formed pericarpium, but
which, by a judicious arrangement, all run into one
another. Linnzus himself has sometimes distin-
guished too nicely; the difference he makes be-
tween Prunus and Amygdalus is improper; when
examined strictly by the foregoing rule, these ge-
nera ought to be joined,

§ 165.

176 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

§ 164.

The external appearance, (habitus), of all thé species
of a genus, must likewise be dttended to, but no generic.
characters taken from it.

This rule is to be taken with many restrictions,
test by too rigid an adherence to it the science may
be mjured. In new genera we must take care
that the habit does not agree with that of other ge-
nera; for it often happens that a plant, supposed to
belong toa new genus, belongs to one already known,
and varies only in the number or figure of the parts
of the flower.

When a plant agrees’ in flower and fruit with
those of a genus already established, but is of a
very different habit, it must not on that aecount be
separated. An example will illustrate this: sup=
pose a person to discover a plant, which in flower
and fruit was a perfect Tilia, but had’ an herbaceous
stem and pinnated leaves: however much the habit
might differ from that of the other species of Tilia,
the plant onght to be referred to that genus. This
example is not really found in’nature, but similar
ones are frequent. To exemplify the rule I shall
however take a real instance from the same genus.
There is a tree in North America whose fruit agrees
with that of our Tilia, but in the flower there ap-
pear, besides the petals, smiall petal-like scales; the
habit, however perfectly agrees with that of the lime-
tree; and as the flower differs only in that incon-
siderable circumstance, the plant. is properly re-

ferred:to the genus Tilia.
§ 1656

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 177

§ 165.

The regularity of the flower is no certain generic
character.

The relative length of the petals is not always
constant, and therefore affords no proper generic
distinction. Suppose plants were discovered that
differed only from one another in the irregularity of
the flower, how undetermined would the science of
Botany become, if the genera were to be multiplied
from so trivial a circumstance!

§ 166.
The figure of the flower is always to be taken in
preference to that of the fruit.

There are more genera, whose species agree in
the flower, than there are whose species agree in the
form of the fruit. The older botanists were too at-
tentive to the fruit, which when it only differs in
external figure is of little importance. In the genus
Pinus we have an apt example. Formerly several
eenera were made of it, according as the fruit was
round, or long, or pointed, or obtuse, &c. The
number of the cells in a pericarp has likewise mis-
led some botanists; but these alone can never be a
discriminating circumstance; as number (§ 159)
never affords generic characters.

§ 167.

Slight variations in the figure of the flower are of
no consequence in establishing genera.

M The

178 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

The form of the corolla is very various, as wé
know from the Terminology: but there are many
kinds of it that very nearly resemble one another.
This great resemblance shews evidently that the
transition from one to another is but small, and
that nature does not guide herself according to our
distinctions. A funnel-shaped corolla easily passes
into a salver-shaped one, and vice versa; if genera
were to be formed upon such small circumstances,
the number would become too great. In the genus
Convallaria, the species Solomon’s seal, (C. Poly-
gonatum), has a tubular, the lily of the valley,
(C. majalis), a bell-shaped corolla. Hence we see
that these trivial variations of allied species of coa
rolla are of little consequence. But when plants
with monopetalous and polypetalous flowers are al-
licd, they must form separate genera. ‘The form
of the corolla must be very different when it gives
occasion to form: new genera.

§ 168.
When the fruit in allied plants is very different,
‘the genera must be separated.

Plants may agree perfectly in their flowers while
they bear’ very different fruit. If the variety in the
fruit does not rest on the number of. the cells or of
the seeds, or on the form of these alone, the plants
must form distinct genera. ‘The example already
brought from the genus Rhamnus, (§ 157), affords
a proof of this. ‘The genera Abroma and ‘Theo-
broma differ only in the fruit. Such distinctions are

very beautiful, and ought never to be overlooked.
4, § 169.

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 179

§ 169.

The Nectarium affords the best generic character.

When the nectarium, on account of its singular
figure, distinguishes one flower from another, it 1s
an excellent character. But it must be remarked,
that the structure of the nectary must be striking :
for it would be improper to consider the Arenaria
peploides as a distinct genus, because there are giands
in the flower; or to separate the American Tilia,
(§ 164), from the European, because’ there are
small scales in the corolla: But if, as in other
plants, there are nectaria of a cylindrical or filiform
figure, such a singular structure ought not to be

overlooked. The rule is not of difficult observa-
tion, for there are but few exceptions to’it.
§ 170. ©
The figure of the style and of ihe jilaments affords

no generic character, except it is very remarkable.

It often happens, that the figure of the styi¢ and
of the filaments in some species of a genus is very
different; that the style and filaments are bent down,
or are otherwise of a peculiar figure; but this, iA
general, is of little importance. However, if in
any genus there is an essential difference in these
parts, as in Cordia, it deserves particular attention.

The germen may be supported on a stalk within
the flower, asin Euphorbia, Passiflora, Helictévis,
Sterculia, &¢. which is’a striking character ‘not to
be neglected. Linné was induced by this stalk,
which is nothing more than an elongation of the re-

M 2 ceptacle,

180 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ceptacle, to consider it as another style below the
germen; and he accordingly reduces various ge-
nera of this kind to his class Gynandria, (§ 142).

Sivas

The situation of the germen is an excellent generic
character.

However similarly constructed plants may be, if
the germen in one is above and in another is below
the calyx, they must form separate genera. There
is no instance known where this situation of the ger-
men is subject to variation. A single exception is
found in the genus Saxifraga; where in some spe-
cies the germen is under the calyx; in some it is
half above and half below, and in others it is wholly
above the calyx. But here we see the transition
distinctly, and consequently this instance alone is
az exception to the rule.

§ 172.

The situation or rather the insertion of the stamina
as of great importance in a generic character.

Whether the stamina are inserted in the calyx,
in the corolla, or in the receptacle, they afford a
principal character in establishing genera. Let the
conformity of the whole plant or flower be what it
may, the genera must be determined by the inser-
tion of the stamina. In the caryophyllous plants,
particularly in Lychnis and Silene, some filaments
are inserted in the receptacle, and some in the co-
rolla: these accordingly make one exception to the
rule.

§ 173.

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 18]

§ 173.

‘The sex, (sexus), of plants, can never serve as @
discriminating character of a genus.

{f a plant differs from another in sex, this circum-
stance Is not to be taken into the generic character ;
at least it cannot serve any important purpose. We
have already remarked, that no character is more
unsteady than that of sex ; for hermaphrodite flowers
are often by culture changed into male and female
flowers, and even difference of climate produces the
same effect. For instance, in our garden, the Cera-
tonia siliqua is constantly observed with perfect
flowers, of different sexes on different trees, (Dioe-
cia), though in Egypt it is constantly found with
hermaphrodite flowers. Many genera, as Lychnis,
Valeriana, Cucubalus, Urtica, Carex, &c, have
species with hermaphrodite flowers, though all the
rest are dioicous.

Flowers that are of neither sex, (/lores neutri),
having neither stamina nor style, and which are
found between fertile flowers, as in Viburnum and
Hydrangea, cannot serve as generic marks. ‘The
plants of the 19th class form the only exception.

Hitherto we have only stated the rules that are
generally applicable, to all the families of the ve-
getable kingdom. ‘There are, however, particu-
far rules for single plants that we must here take
notice of. Whoever attends to them and to the
rules already laid down, will find no difficulty in
characterizing genera. Particular rules might be

dee ast CLV Cg,

182 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

given for all the natural families, but it is sufficient
to specify the most important.

§ 174.

The Grasses, (§ 122, No. 5), have too great a
similarity in their whole structure not to make it ne-
cessary to select particular rules for ascertaining the
genera. ‘The number of the stamina, the presence
or want of an arista, can by no means serve either
for separating or for establishing genera. The num-
ber of the flowers, of the valves, and of the style,
however, should not be neglected: there is hardly
any thing else that affords better distinguishing marks
than these; and, being steady, if they were to be
overlooked the genera would grow too large. The
Involucrum, which is found in some grasses, affords
various characters that ought not to be rejected, as
does likewise dee form of the valves and nectaria.

SIGE

The Lilies, (§ 122, No, 6), must be distinguished
by the spatha, according as it 1s one or many-leaved,
one or many-flowered: and also, which happens in
few other plants, the stigma, the duration of the co-
rolla, and the direction of the stamina serve for dis-
tinguishing genera. We must likewise observe

whether the stigma be divided, and how often;
whether the covet falls off, grows dry, or is per-
sistent; lastly, whether the stamina are erect or bent
down ; or take an oblique direction. In this, as well
as in the other natural families, the general rules

already

BOTANICAL APHORISMS, 189

already laid down are at the same. time to be ob-
served,

§ 176.

The umbelliferous planis, (§ 143, No. 45), have,
of all the natural families, the greatest resemblance
to one another. They are all furnished with a pen-
tapetalous corolla, five stamina, an inferior germen,
two pistilla; and even the mode of florescence and
the fruit, which consists of two naked seeds, are si-
milar. Linnzus imagined he had found a discri-
minating circumstance in the general and partial in-
volucrum, (§ 36), by which the genera were to be
ascertained ; but this part is subject to great varia-
tion, and can in very few cases afford a good cha-
yacter, Another difference has been found in the
fruit. Though this always consists of two naked
seeds, yet their ficure is remarkably different; and
upon this alone are founded the generic characters
in the natural order of Umbellifere,

§ 177.

{a the labiated and ringent flowers, or the whole
fourteenth class of the Linnean System, (§ 139),
the genera are established on the corolla, the calyx,
and the direction of the stamina. In the first or-
der, (§ 140), the fruit, which in the whole is si-
milarly formed, affords no character, any more than
the style, for in most the fruit consists of four
naked seeds; the pistillum consists of a simple style
and a bifid stigma. It is the laciniz of the calyx,
the yariously formed lips of the corolla, and,, ina

M4 few

“Ash

184 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

few genera, the direction of the stamina, which in
most he in the upper lip, that afford characters in
this family. In the second order, (§ 140),
fruit, which is still more different, affords a num-
ber of characters for distinguishing genera. It is
remarkable in this family, that some of the plants
want a lip; those in the first order wanting the
upper, and those in the last the under lip. mete
crium and Ajuga may serve as examples of the first
order; Tourettia and Castilleja of the second. ‘The
Scordium of Cavanilles, which has an upper but no
under lip, is an exception, as it belongs to the first
order, i

| § 178.

The cruciform flower s, or the plants Boenee to
the fifteenth class, (§ 139), on account of the great
similarity of their parts, are with the greatest diffi-
culty distributed into genera. It is the fruit alone
which can distinguish them, and sometimes the
nectaria in the flower ; the calyx very seldom, and
according as it stands out or is close applied. The
corolla may likewise afford a distinguishing charac-
ter, but is in all similarly formed, and the single
genus Iberis appears with two petals shorter than
the rest. |

§ 179.

The Papilionaceee, or those of the 17th class,
(§ 139), are likewise very similar both in flower
and fruit. The calyx is in them the most important
part, The characters from, the corolla are less de-
iis cisive 5

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 185

cistwe; for they depend on the proportion of its
particular parts, or on their situation. Such cha-
racters are not to be recommended, except where
no better can be had, or when the situation and
proportion are very remarkable. ‘The connate sta-
mina are of little importance, but the stigma makes
avery proper distinctive mark. Whether the fruit
in most of these plants be a lerumen or a lomentum,
it differs very much in figure: and according to the
fioure, cloathing, or number of the seeds it con-.
tains, may the genera be determined,

§ 180.

The compound flowers, or the 19th class, (§ 139),
on account of their peculiar structure are subject to
very different rules. In these attention must be paid
to the common perianth, the receptacle, and the
pappus. On these are founded the genera of this
whole family. ‘The sex, which Linnzeus employs in
the orders of this class, (§ 140), cannot be ap-
proved of in distinguishing the genera, and still less
the form of the flower. Many genera of this class
that have no radius, nevertheless acquire it in favour-
able situations or in warm regions, and others in
like manner lose it. A common plant with us, the
Bidens cernua, according to the generic character
should have no radius ; but when it is found in very
wet slimy ground, it grows radiate. Linné, who
had seen both varieties, took the radiate plant for a
particular genus, and called it Coreopsis Bidens.
Hence it follows, that the genera Coreopsis and
Bidens are not different, except their separation

| should

136 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

should depend on the trivial circumstance above-
mentioned. We might here bring forward several
other examples, but they will easily be found upon
attentive investigation. :

§ 181.

The Cryptogamiz, (§ 139), or the plants of the
94th class, whose flowers are not obvious to the un-
assisted eye, must be determined by their fruit. No
character of these plants should be taken that re-
quires a magnifier, and the character taken should
be easily found. The flower of the cryptogamious
plants is of such a kind that it can be seen only at a
certain time, often for a very short period, and with
a high magnifier: in some it has not yet been dis-
covered at all. It would, therefore, be a very great
error to select for a generic character a part not
easily visible, and found with great difficulty. But
the fruit is very easily seen, and may be examined
with a moderate magnifier; so that it alone must
give the character. We have not yet, however, suf-
ficiently investigated the fruit in all the species of
Cryptogamiz: there are consequently several gaps
in this class which remain to be filled up.

In the Filices, Linnezeus has assumed the mode of
inflorescence as the generic mark. In some of these
the fruit stands in rows, in others in circles; some-
times in the centre, sometimes in the margin or in
the angles of the leaves. In other plants this cir-
cumstance is of no use, but in the Filices we are -
obliged to resort to it.

The

BOTANICAL APHORISMS, 187

The character which Dr Smith has chosen for
discriminating the genera in the Filices is the In-
dusium, (§ 40. 122). As this character is easily
seen, he observes how it separates, and in what
order the seed-capsules under it are placed. In
other Filices, that have not their fructification on
the back of the leaf, we must resort to the figure
of the fruit.

The Musci frondosi, (§ 122), have of late been
very accurately investigated, and their flowers and
fruit are known: we are therefore now able to dis-
tinguish their genera better than formerly, the cha-
racters of which are taken from the peristoma,
(§ 111. d). This organ aitords a number of cha-
racters, that are steady and easily seen.

The Musci hepatici, (§ 122), are also arranged
in genera by the fruit, according to the mode in
which it opens.

The Algez, (§ 122), have their genera ascertain-
ed according to the form of the fruit, so far as this
is known ; but the external form must not be em-
ployed for this purpose.

The same characters are used in the Fung,
(122), but these are so numerous, and their dura-
tion is so short, that the industry of many natu-
_ralists in different places will be required to fill up
the blanks in this order.

It remains to be observed further, that all genera
must be determined by the flower and ui and
never by the root, the stem, or other parts, not
éven by the involucrum.

§ 182.

188 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

§ 182.

A species means each particular plant standing
under a genus, which continues unchanged when
raised from seed. A VARIETY, (varictas), is a plant
differing in colour, figure, size or smeli from a
known species, which easily by seed returns to
the particular species it arose from. Species that
require great attention to be distinguished from one
another, but which constantly remain the same
when raised from seed, are easily mistaken for va-
rieties ; and on account of the great resemblance
they have to one another some botanists give them
the name of sussprcizs. But all these may be
determined by the simple division into Species and
Varieties, and as this division is easily understood,
it seems superfluous to descend to Subspecies: Va-
rieties must not be confounded with monsters, (MOoN-
sTRA)3 these are, it is true, varieties, with this dif-
ference that they are not continued by seed. Dis-
eased plants have likewise sometimes the appearance
of varieties; but they are easily distinguished, as
we shall see hereafter. ‘The various rules, accord-
ing to which species are to be ascertained, are not
founded on the flower or fruit, but upon other parts

of the plant.

§ 183.

In distinguishing species regard is not to be had to
colour, smell, taste, size, or to the external surface, viz.
whether it be smooth or hairy.

When

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 189

When two plants differ from one another only in
the colour of the flower, in having a different smell
or taste, in one being a foot, and the other a cubit
high ; or in the one having a smooth and the other
a hairy leaf or stem; such plants can be considered
merely as varieties. If one plant differs from ano-
ther in all these qualities together, it may pass for a
different species. |

White or black spots on the leaves of the plant
cannot discriminate species, and should only be taken
into account when plants really different cannot be
distinguished otherwise. But if a species can be
ascertained without having recourse to colour, it is
always better.

Smell and taste, as they are only comparative qua-
lities, cannot be received as specific characters.

The size depends so much on the quality of the
soil that no regard can Le had toit. The pubes-
cence is exactly in the same circumstances; for a
hairy leaf will become smooth in a different soil.

Plants with tomentose, spiny or woolly leaves or
stalks, are not so easily considered as Varieties, and
these qualities afford the best distinctions.

§ 184.

The root gives a beautiful and infallible mark for
distinguishing species.

When the root in two similar plants is different,
they may be considered as different species. Culti-
vated plants are indeed an exception. Culture for
a length of time, or the skill of a gardener, often

. give

190 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

give plants a very different appearance, as in the
carrot, (Daucus carota). In its wild state this plant
has no large or yellow roots; it receives these solely
from culture. But the above rule is applicable
solely to wild plants; however, if we can avoid
drawing the specific character from the root, and
can take it from other marks, it is so much the bet-
ter, as we have not always an opportunity of exam-
ining the root, particularly in a hortus siccus.

§ 185.

The stem affords a certain and obvious sponse dis-
iinction.

The stem seldom varies, and therefore gives an
excellent character ; in particular the round, the cor-
nered, the jointed, the creeping, &c. stems, are
very steady. The branched stem is not so sure a
mark; it is very subject to variation, and therefore
cives no certain character.

§ 186.

The duration of a plant is a proper distinguishing
mark of the species only in its native situation.

When allied or very similar plants differ in dura-
tion, so that one ts an annual, the other a shrubby
plant, or even tree, they must be considered as dif-
ferent species. But the duration of these, in the
places where they grow wildy; must be mvesti-
gated. All plants that are biennial with us are an-
nual in warmer climates. Some that are perennial
im warm countries turn annual with us: the root is

killed

BOTANICAL APHORISMS, -- 19}

killed in our winters, and it must be restored by
sowing it again. Other perennial plants with us are
shrubs in warm countries, because no cold destroys
their stems. When thus the duration ‘of a. plant
exhibits any discriminating mark, the other species
must be accurately examined to know whether they
too are notot longer duration ina milder climate. But
if plants vary in this respect in the same region, such
must be considered as different species; for exam-
ple, the Mercurialis annua and perennis resemble one
another much, but he names express a distinct spe-
cific difference.

§ 187.

Most plants are dsstinguished from one another
their leaves. |

Almost all plants are distinguished by the various
form of their leaves. But there are instances where
this character will not answer; for the umbelli-
ferous, the compound, all the aquatic plants, figs,
and mulberries are an exception. In these the
leaves are subject to such considerable variations,
that without much experience it is difficult to dis-
tinguish a species from a variety. . When, there-
fore, there is uncertainty in the leaves, other cha-
racters must be resorted to.

When plants differ from one another by their
spines, stipulze or bracteze, they may be considered
as distinct species. But it is to be observed, that
these parts, if taken as specific characters, must not

be subject to fall off.

by

4

§ 188.

192 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

; § 188.

The props, (fulcra), present certain specific cha-
racters, which are to be preferred to all others.

When plants differ from one another by their
spines, stipule or bractese, they may be considered
as distinct species. But it is to be observed, that
these parts, if taken as specific characters, must not
be subject to fall off.

§ 189.

The thorn, (spina), and the tendril, (cirrhus), are
always to be taken as certain characters.

The thorn is nothing more than an indurated im-
perfect bud, which, when the plant grows in a lux-
uriant soil, changes to a branch. Pears, oranges,
and other plants in a poor soil produce thorns,
which leave them in richer ground. Some plants
that have many thorns, retain them even in fertile
soils. ‘The prickle is very constant, and is never
altered by change of soil. In the same manner the
tendril changes in some plants with papilionaceous
flowers. We must first be perfectly certain that
the thorn or the tendril are never wanting before we
distinguish the species by them.

§ 190.

The mode of inflorescence is a certain character.
We have no instances of the mode of inflorescence
being subject to variation. When plants differ m
this respect they are undoubtedly different species.
The number of the flowers, that is, whether they
3 | be

re]

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 193

be two, three or more, isan uncertain character. In
general it may be observed, that nothing is so in-
constant, as number, and-that it ought never to be
founded, on.

§, 191.

A species is never to be made a variety, nor ava-
riety @ species, on account of any small di ifference.

We shall see by the history of our, science, that.
in the 17th and in the beginning of the 18th cen-
tury, every inconsiderable variety of a plant was
made a species, which led to great error. It is a
rule, rather to take. a plant for a variety, than to
make it too easily a species.

Sp192: |

The selected characters of a. species must be con-
spicuous, in the varieties.

If a plant is subject to great hem the cha-
racters must be so, chosen that they may be seen
in all its varieties. It would, therefore, be faulty
to separate a plant that commonly has a five-lobed
leaf, and. varies with an intire leaf, from. another
plant, merely on account of its five-lobed leaf. In
this case we must seek for other characters, otherwise
the beginner, who has seen nothing but the variety,
will never come to the knowledge of the species.

§ 193.

The characters, by which all the. species of a genus
are distinguished, must be taken from one or a few parts.
. : In

194 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

In a genus which has many species, if I should
characterize the first by the spike, the second by
the leaves, the third by the stem, the fourth by the
root, the fifth by the fruit, &c. no person with cer-
fainty would know the plants.

It is necessary to observe in the species of a genus,
what parts afford the best characters, and if there
are many, they must be pointed out, and the dif-
ferences remarked, that there may be no uncer-
tainty or mistake.

§ 194,

It is only at the time of flowering, or of ripening
the fruit that characters should be taken. |

No botanist can with certainty distinguish plants
without flowers or fruit, otherwise he must by fre-
quent practice have attained a facility in distinguish-
ing them by their leaves. ‘Thus characters afforded
by plants before the developement of the flower or
the ripening of the fruit are of no use.

§:295.

The other charaeters by which species are ascer-
tained must be learned by experience. It is further
however to be remarked, that a description is to be
made according to the rules of accurate terminology,
in the following order ; first the root, then the stem,
the leaves, the fulcra, and lastly, the inflorescence.
In a description, the colour of the flower is likewise
to be mentioned, but superfluous or unimportant

circumstances are to be omitted; such as that the
root

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 195

root is under ground, that the leaves are green, &c.
The old botanists frequently err in this respect.

§ 196.
The essential difference, or name, (diagnosis), of
the species is a short description containing only
what is essential; according to the following rules. |

The specific name must not be too long, and if pos-
sible should be contained in twelve words.

We have seen, (§ 193), that in forming the spe-
cific name we must express only the essential differ.
ence, and so characterise it, that he who sees the
plant for the first time, though he has never seen
the other species of the genus, may be at no loss
to know what plant he has before him. Words
that are superfluous, must be omitted, and only
those made use of which distinguish the plant from
all others. If more than twelve words are neces-
sary for the complete denomination of the plant,
they must be adopted: for it is better that the name
be long and distinct, than short and unintelligible.

The specific name must be in the Latin language, and
all the words in the ablative case. |

We shall here recur to our old example, the
Solanum tuberosum, the difference between which
and the other numerous species of the genus is ex-
pressed as follows.

SOLANUM tuberosum; caule inermi herbaceo, foliis
pinnatis integerrimis, pedunculis subdivisis.

In the specific name there must be no relative idea.

What was formerly said with regard to the dis-
tinguishing of the species is applicable here. Mag-
nitude,

196 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

nitude, colour, &c. are not to be made use of, be-
cause these things can only be understood by com-
parison with other plants, and we have not always
at hand the object of comparison. ‘The following,
which errs against this rule, may serve as an ex-
ample.

Solanum arborescens, tomentosum, latifolium ;
fructu magno cinereo. Barr. aequin. 104.

Who can know from this character what plant is
meant ? | | |
“There must be no negative expression in the specific
name. |

When in a specific name it is only said what the
plant has not, it is evident that nothing certain can
be learned from it, e. g.

Cuscuta caule parasitico, volubili, lupuliform1,
aspero punctato, floribus racemosis, non conglo-
meratis aut pedunculatis. Krock Siles. 251.

When a genus consists but of one species, there 1s no
occasion for a specific difference. :

It is evident that a single species, that cannot be
compared with another, can have no discriminating
character. ‘Thus it is, in particular, with Butomus,
Paris, Parnassia, &c.

But when only one species of a genus is dis-
covered, an accurate description must be made of
it, that it may be distinguished if others should be
discovered.

§ 197.
The complete description of the natural charac-
ters, (§ 148), of a genus, must be made in the fol-
lowing

BOTANICAL APHORISMS» _ 9%

lowing order: First, the calyx, then, the corolla,
the nectarium, the stamina, the pistillum, the fruit
and the seed. In the compound flowers we end
with the receptacle, and in the umbelliferze we begin
with the involucrum. A full description of the
genus is contained in the essential character, the
rules for forming which have been already detailed,

§ 198.

Varieties, if they are not remarkable, deserve
little attention from botanists: but if they are of a
very singular figure, they must be taken notice of
and described, that they may not be considered as
species. Variations in colour only are of no con-
sequence, being exceedingly subject to change, as
we shall see immediately, (§ 201).

§ 199.

in plants the following are the principal colours :

1. Cyaneus, dark blue, like Prussian blue.

2. Coeruleus, sky blue, like the flowers of Ve-
ronica chamedrys.

3. Azureus, azure blue, nearly the same with the
former, but bright, like ultramarine.

4. Caesius, pale blue, verging towards grey.

5. Atrovirens, dark green, bordering on dark
blue.

6, Aeruginesus, light bluish green, lke verdi-
grease.

7. Prasinus, oT smaragdinus, gYass-
green, without any tinge of yellow.or blue.

8, Mavo-virens, green, verging upon yellow.
N 3 9, Glaucus,

198 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

9. Glaucus, green, bordering upon grey.

10. Aureus, gold-yellow, without any foreign
mixture.

11. Ochraceus, rola with a small tinge of
brown.

12. Pallide-flavens, pale or whitish yellow.

13. Sulphureus, bright yellow, like the flowers
of the Hieracium Pilosella.

14, Vitellinus, yellow, with a slight tinge of red.

15. ferrugineus, brown, verging towards yellow.

16. Brunneus, the darkest pure brown. |

17. Fuscus, brown, running into grey.

18. Badius, hepaticus, chesnut or liver brown,
bordering on dark red. ; !
en 10: Aurantiacus, orange, or a mixture of yellow
and red.

20, Miniatus, s. cinnabarinus, high | red, like red-
lead,

21. Laterilius, brick-colour, like the former, but
duller, and verging towards yellow.

22. Coccineus, s. phocniceus, cimnabar colour, with
a slight tinge of blue.

2/93: toe. flesh- colour, something between
white and red.

24. Croceus, saffron colour, dark orange.
~ 25. Puniceus, fine bright red, like carmine.

26. Sanguineus, S. purpureus, pure red, but duller
than the foregoing,

27. Roseus, rose colour, a pale blood-red.

28. Atropurpureus, very dark red, almost ap-
proaching to black,

29. Viss

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 199

29. Violaceus, violet colour, a mixture of ‘blue
and red.

30. Lilacinus, lilac, the former colour, but duller,
and verging more towards red.

31. Ater, the purest and deepest black.

32. Niger, black, with’a tinge of grey.

33. Cinereus, ash-colour, blackish grey.

34. Griseus, lively light grey.

35. Canus, hoary, with more white than grey. ©

36. Lividus, dark grey, running into violet.

37. Lacteus, s. candidus, shining white.

38. Albus, dull white.

39. Albidus, dirty dull white.

40, Hyalinus, transparent like pure glass.

These colours are only used in describing the
Lichens and Fungi: being not sb variable in these
plants as in others.

The colours are all represented on the 10th plate,
for mere words do not convey a sufficient idea of
them.

§ 200.

In general every part of a plant has a particular
colour.

The root 1s for the most part black or white,
“sometimes brown, seldom yellow or red, but never
green.

The stem and the leaves are commonly green,
seldom red, sometimes spotted with white or black,
very seldom yellow, externally seldom blue, and
only white or brown when covered with a to-
mentum.

N 4 The

‘200 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

The corolla is.of every different colour, ‘but sel-
dom green, and still seldomer black: the calyx is
generally green, seldom of any other colour, never
black. | |

The filaments -are ‘commonly transparent or
white, seldom of other - colours.

The succulent kinds of fruit are of. all colours.

The capsules are brown, green or-red, seldom
black. |

The seed is black or brown, seldom of other co-
lours.

N. It is remarkable, that the yellow colour :pre-
dominates in the compound flowers and in most
autumnal flowers. ‘White is found. chiefly in. the
spring flowers; white and blue principally in‘ the
flowers of cold regions; red and. richly variegated
colours in those of warm climates. -White berries
are commonly sweet; red, sour; blue, sweet and
sour mixed; and. black, insipid or poisonous.

§ 201.

Though the botanist seldom trusts much to co-
lour; yet it is of use to know in what way flowers
and fruits sometimes change from one colour to
another. |

In general. most.colours pass into white; the red
and the blue are most prone to change. It is not
often that the change is made into yellow, or that
red passes into yellow: blue very often turns to
ved. We-shall here give.a few examples :

Ked. passes into white-in
Erica, Serpyllum, Betonica, Pedicularis, Dianthus,

Agro-

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 201

Agrostemma, Trifolium, Orchis, Digitalis, Car-
duus, Serratula, Papaver, Fumaria, Geranium, and
many others.

Blue changes into white in
‘Campanula, Pulmonaria, Anemone, Aquilegia, Viola,
Vicia, Galega, Polygala, Symphytum, Borago, Hys-
sopus, Dracocephalum, Scabiosa, Jasione, Centaurea,
and many others.

Yellow changes into white in
Melilotus, Agrimonia, Verbascum, Tulipa, Alcea,
Centaurea, Chrysanthemum, &c.

Blue changes into red in
Aquilegia, Polygala, Anemone, Centaurea, Pulmo-
naria, &c.

Blue changes into yellow in
Commelina, Crocus, &c.

Red changes into yellow in
Mirabilis, Tulipa, Anthyllis, &c.

Red changes into blue in
Anagallis, &c.

White into red in
Oxalis, Datura, Pisum, Bellis.

Fruits, particularly the juicy kinds, often change
their ‘colours.

Black berries change into white in
Rubus, Myrtillus, Sambucus, &c.

Black into yellow in
Solanum.

Red passes into white in
Ribes, Rubus Ideus.

Red into yellow in
Cornus. —

Green

202 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Green into red in
Ribes Grossularia.

Black into green in
Sambucus.

The seeds of plants likewise frequently change
from one colour to another; the poppy, (Papaver),
has both black and white seeds.

The seeds of papilionaceous flowers are most sub-
ject to vary in colour.

§ 202.

The leavés are in some plants naturally spotted 5
but the spots are not always constant; they fre-
quently disappear altogether. Of this we have ex-
amples in the following :

Leaves with black spots.

Arum, Polygonum, Orchis, Hieracium, Hypochaeris,

Leaves with white spots.

Pulmonaria, Cyclamen.

Leaves with red spots.

Lactuca, Rumex, Beta, Amaranthus.

Leaves with yellow spots.
Amaranthus.

The leaves of some plants become red in autumn,
as those of Rumex: others at times produce leaves
wholly red, as Angelica, Fagus, Beta, Amaranthus.
Most plants change into yellowish green, light green
or dark green from excess of heat, or of cold, from
defect in the structure of the vessels, or from va-
riety of soil and situation. From similar circum-
stances, the margin or centre of a leaf is subject to

change. Gardeners are fond of such plants, which
they

&
BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 203

they call blotched. When the margin is yellow, the
leaves are called folia aurata; when the centre has a
yellow spot, they are called folia aureo-variegata ;
when the leaf is white on the margin, it is called
folium argentco, s. albo-marginatum; when it is white
‘in the centre, it is called folium albo, s. argenteo-
variegatum.

§ 203.

Besides in colour, leaves change also in number,
breadth, figure and parts. In number leaves change
only when they are compound or opposite. ‘They
vary often in breadth, so that an oval leaf fre-
quently becomes oblong, &c. Culture often changes
the figure of leaves, especially in rich soils. Of
this we have an example in the common colewort ;
and other plants acquire sometimes waved or crisped
leaves.

The different divisions of leaves often change re-
markably the appearance of a plant. The common
elder, (Sambucus nigra), has sometimes finely cut
leaves. The alder, (Betula a/nus), has likewise
lobed or divided leaves ; and many others are sub-
ject to like varieties. Culture is the true touch-
stone of plants; by frequent sowing the seeds we
can determine with certainty what are varieties, and
what are species. ‘This is the only means of arriy-
ing at the truth. | |

§ 204.
When the student has become acquainted with
these rules, and by practice has attained a readi-
| ness

204: PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ness in employing them, he will yet find difficulty
in determining plants he has never seen before. In
this case the following directions are to be ob-
served > | |

In the first place he is accurately to examine the
flower, and endeavour to refer it to its class and
order, by attending to the number, proportion, and
connexion of the parts of the fructification. When he
has succeeded in this, he seeks out the genus in his
system. Here, however, he may encounter some difh-
culties, which he must carefully endeavour to over-
come.

The stamina, and likewise the pistillum, often vary
according to the soil and climate in which the plant
has grown, so that sometimes there is a stamen more
or less than there should be: in this case he must
examine many flowers, and be ruled by the ma-
jority. There is often likewise a luxuriance in
plants, which doubles the number of parts; and often
a defect, when a half is wanting: thus sometimes
there are eight instead of four stamina, and some-
times only two. When in this case he cannot find
the plant in the class where he thinks it ought to be,
he must try the other classes where it may be. Some-
‘times the anthereze and filaments are united, which is
not the case in other species, and the sex also. is
subject to variation. ‘Therefore, when a plant is not
found in the class to which it seems to belong, he
must search the 21st, 22d and 23d classes. If he
is convinced after these searches that the plant is
new, he must describe it as such. Dr Roth and
Professor Hedwig have done an essential service to

botany

BOTANICAL APHORISMS. 205

botany by making an index of the most frequent
variations in the number and sex of different plants.

When one has been fortunate enough to discover
the genus of an unknown plant he must proceed to
determine its species. Me must compare the specific
characters, and never consider any plant as deter-
mined till he finds it agree with those laid down.
When these characters are not sufficient, he then
compares it with the synonyma, to see if from them
he can discover it with certainty. In the references
he makes to authors Linnzus has, after the page,
added an asterisk (*) to those who have given a
good description of the plant, by which the further
investigation is very much assisted. But when the
plant is obscure, or not certainly known, he dis-
tinguishes it by a cross, (T).

The duration of a plant he has marked after the
place in which itisa native. If it be a tree or a
shrub, he marks it with this character, 5 ; if a pe-
rennial with this, 2; if a biennial thus, ¢, and if
an annual thus, ©.

IV, NO.

IV. NOMENCLATURE OF
PLANTS.

§ 205.
{r appears to be of little importance to give a

plant a new name; but it is certainly agreeable to
one who makes botany his study, to find a name
that is appropriate, and easily and generally receiv-
ed. When the name is indeterminate and unsettled,
the knowledge of the thing is lost. The old bo-
tanists were not much. concerned about preserving
the names of plants. Every one who turned author
gave them new ones, and thus in those times the
study of Botany was unpleasant and uncertain.
Persons were disgusted with the barbarous, dry and
unfixed nomenclature which prevailed, and declined
entering on the study of the most beautiful objects
of nature, on account of the difficulty and uncer-
tainty which attended it. But by the introduction
of fixed and generally received names, we are
now able to make ourselves understood wherever
Botany is known.

8 § 206,

NOMENCLATURE OF PLANTS. 207

§ 206.

Tournefort, who undertook to reform the science
of Botany, established genera, and invented names
for them: but the species were still distinguished
by short and often imperfect descriptions. The ge-
neric name was then, it is true, better defined, but
the species were left still undetermined. In this, as
in every other department of the science of Botany,
Linneus has performed the most eminent service
by establishing a generic name, (omen genericum),
and a trivial name, (nomen triviale), to every plant.
The rule by which these names are imposed is as
follows :

§ 207.

Each genus must be defined and properly denomi-
nated; and every new genus must likewise have a new
name. A name once properly imposed, is not af-
terwards to be changed. None but a botanist, who
is acquainted with the names of all other plants,
has aright to impose a name, lest the same genus
should receive two different names.

be § 208.

Generally received names must be preserved; and
when new discovered plants receive two names from
different botanists, the first that was imposed, if it is
a good one, must be adopted.

’ As most botanists now follow Linnzeus,' it is their
duty to preserve his names when they are applied to
true xenera. In newly discovered plants, it often

! ; happens

208 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

happens that two botanists, in different places, about
the same time, give each a name to the genus. One
only of these can belong to it, and therefore that
which was first imposed, if it is good, and formed
according to rule, must be received. For instance,
the bread-fruit tree was described by Solander, by
Forster and by Thunberg. Solander called it Sito-
dium, Yorster Artocarpus, and Thunberg Rade-
machera. Forster’s name was the first and, like-
wise the best, consequently it is that which is gene-
rally received.

§ 209.

Names must not be too long.

If the name of a genus is composed of many
short words, it becomes too long and displeasing to
the ear. Some of the names given by the older bo-
tanists may serve as examples, viz.
Calophylodendron. Orbitochortus.
Cariotragematodendros. Hypophyllocarpodendron.
Acrochordodendros. Stachyarpogophora.
Leuconarcissolirion. Myrobatindum.

§ 210.

Names must not be taken from foreign languages,
nor even from the European; but, when it can be done,
they should be formed from the Greek.

Names taken from foreign languages, even though
they have a Latin termination, are improper, and
cannot be so classically compounded as the Greek.
Even names fornied from the Latin are destitute of
euphony, and still more so when they are com:

Rie | pounded

NOMENCLATURE OF PLANTS. 209

pounded of Latin and Greek together. When it is
possible they should be made out of two Greek
words with a Latin termination. ‘The following are
examples of faulty names: ,

Out of the American languages.

Aberemoa. opeibaed! 9) Amalatoa
Bocoa. Caraipa. Cassipourea.
Conceveiba. Caumarouna. Faramcea.
Guapira. Heymassoli.. Icacorea.
Metayba. Ocotea. Pachira,
Paypayrola. Quaypoya. Saouatri.
Yocoyena. Vouacapoua. Vatoirea.

From the Malabar language. —
Manjapumeram. Balam-pulli.
Cudu-Pariti. Cumbulu.

From the Latin language.
Corona solis. Crista galli. | Dens leonis.
“Tuberosa. Graminifolia. Odorata.
From the German language.
' Bovista. Beccabunga. Brunella.
From other European languages.
Belladonna, Sarsaparilla, Galega, Orvala, Aim-
berboi, Percepier, Crupina.
From Greek and Latin together.
Linagrostis, Cardamindum Chrysanthemindun.,
Sapindus. |
Such names are always faulty; and though some
of them have been received, they ought never to be
imitated.
Vhe follewing names are better :
Glycirrhiza, from yavxus sweet, and fice a root.
- O Lirto-

910 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ET.

Liriodendron from acipiy a lily, and SévSpor a tree.
Ophioxylon -—~- gs a serpent, and fuacy wood.
Cephalanthus — xepaan the head, and a:bos a flower.

Lithospermum — a/es a stone, and ezipue seed.

Leontodon — aéey a lion, and viv; a tooth.

Hippuris — inmmos a horse, and pa a tail.
§ 211.

Plants must not be denominated by names already ap-

propriated to animals or fossils. |

The names of plants must not be the same with
those of any animals or minerals; but each genus
in all the three kingdoms of nature ought to have
different names. ‘The following are faulty in this.
respect. | ,

Taxus, Onagra, Elephas, Ampelis, Natrix, Del-
phinium, Ephemerum, Hruca, Locusta, Phalangium,
Staphylinus, Granatum, Hyacinthus, Plumbago.

§ 212.

Names must not be received that are borrowed front
religious, divine, moral, anatomical, pathological, geo-
graphical, or other terms. ;

When we choose a name haying a reference to
religious or other matters, with which it cannot pro-
perly be compared, or which are not known to
every one, it is good for nothing. The following
names are therefore faulty.

Relivious.
Pater noster. Oculus Christi.
Morsus Diaboli, Spina Christi.

Huga Demonum., © Palma Christi.
Galceus

¢

NOMENCLATURE OF PLANAS. O14

Calceus Marie. Labruim Veneris,
Barba Jovis. Umbilicus Veneris.
| Poetical.
Ambrosia. Cornucopia. Protea.
Narcissus. Adonis. ‘Andromeda,
Gramen Parnassi, &c.
Moral. !
Impatiens. Patientia. Concordia.
Anatomical.

Clitoris, Vulwaria, Priapus, Umbilicus.
Pathological.
Paralysis. Sphacelus. ~ Verruca.
Oeconomical. -
Candela, Ferrum equinum, Serra, Bursa pastoris.

From the native place.
Hortensia, China, Molucca, Ternatea.

| 8213 |

Lhe names of genera must be framed according ta
resemblances or properties, which, however, must bé
found not in one species of the genus only, but in se-

veral.

When the name can be formed according to the
essential character of the genus, to the figure of the
seed, its resemblance to other plants, or to the form
of the flower, such.a name is to be preferred, be-
cause it conveys some idea of the plant. ‘Lhe pro-
perties of a plant, or its colour, do not afford good
names, though sometimes recourse must be had to
them: but when the names are taken from unsteady
marks, such as the woolliness of the leaf or stem,

: Oe | io eawihicn

21Z PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

which is proper only to one species, they are to be
rejected.

Lhe following names are taken from a single part

of a plant, and are not to be imitated. |

Cyanella; on account of its blue flower; but
there are species with white and yellow flowers.

Argophyllum ; on account of its tomentose white
leaves.

Gratiola; for its use in surgery.

Samolus; from the island of Samos, where it was
first found. |

§ 214.

Names ending in oides, astrum, astroides, ago, ella,
ana, must be carefully avoided. gan
_ By these terminations the resemblances of plants
to others are intended, at the same time implying
a doubt. Those names of this kind are especially
to be avoided, which are of a disag reeable or harsh
sO ound ; STIG ass |

Alsinoides. Lycoperdastrum.
Alsinella. Lycoperdoides.
Alsinastrum. Juncago.

Adsinastroides. Trucago.
Alsinastriformis. Portulacaria.

Ana walloides. Breyniana.
Anagallastrum. Ruyschiana.
Clathroidastrum
§ 215.

Names similar in sound must likewise be avoided.
A name may sometimes be very proper, but may
be

NOMENCLATURE OF PLANTS. F135:

be faulty in having nearly the same sound with ano-

ther, and ought therefore to be changed, that it may

not be mistaken in printing or speaking : such as,
Conocarpus. Ambrosia. Gaura.
Gonecarpus. Ambrosinia. Guarea.

§ 216. |

The name of a class or order can never be received.
as the name of a genus.

The antients often use the name of a whole fa-
mily for a single genus. ‘This leads beginners into
error, and one sometimes knows not whether a class
or a genus is meant. ‘Thus we find Lilium, Palma,
Muscus, Filix, Fungus, &c.

G aaa

The highest reward of a botanist is to have a genus
called after his name:

No monument of marble or brass is so lasting as
this. It is the only way of perpetuating the me-
mories of true botanists, or of those who have be-
nefited the science.

The names of botanists must be preserved un-
changed, only giving them a proper Latin termina-
tion; as,

_ Linnza, Royenia, Thunbergia, Sparmannia, Gle-
ditschia, Halleria, Buxbaumia, Smithia, &c.

§ 218.

For. the better distinguishing of the species, Linné,
Besides the generic name, contrived a second, whicli
he called the trivial name, (nomen triviale, § 220).
| O 3 ‘ With

~

214 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

With regard to this the following things are to be
Oe oped. |

Se

A irivial name, must be short, unlike to the generic
name, and always an adjective. |

Trivial mames are intendéd as a help to the me-
mory, and therefore if they are compound words
they do not answer the end. It.is. likewise improper
to annex to a.generic name, which is always a sub-
Sstantive, another substantive. The following names
are) therefore faulty : |

Carex Drymeja. Juncus LPenageja.
Chordorhiza. Scirpus Beothryon.

-—~— Heleonaster. Lichen Aipolius, &c.

The trivial name should always be an adjective,
and should, if possible, ‘signify. some, quality, of ‘the
Species; as, Gite paniculata, Carex canescens,
Campanula patula, Campanula persicifolia, &c.*

F ra 4 § 220. }

The figure, cloathing, and especially the specific dif-
ference, suggest the most appropriate trivial names.

When the specific difference. can be expressed in
ene word, and that an adjective, such a trivial name

* The author has omitted to mention here, that Linneus
oiten gives a substantive as a trivial name: . It will be ob-
served, huwever, that in general this substantive had formerly
been the well known name of the plant; and when it is used
asa trivial name, it is always marked with a capital;'as Theo-
broma Cacao, Nicotiana Tabacum, Acsculus Hippocastanum,
Citrus Aurantium, Sc.

| always

NOMENCLATURE OF PLANTS. 215

always deserves the preference. But the adjective
must not be too long, nor consist of two words.
When such trivial name is not to be found, we
smust have recourse to the eo) place of g¥#owth
and other circumstances.:

Seren

The colour and native country afford very uncertain
trivial names.

It cannot be known from the appearance of a
plant whether it grows in this or in that country,
nor whether another species may not likewise grow
in the same place. Neither can it be known whe-
ther the colour of a plant is constant or not. Tri-
vial names, from these circumstaaces, are not there-
fore to be recommended. Linnzeus has Polemonium
coerulcum, though it varies with white flowers. Euony-
mus europeus is not the only European species of
that genus; the E. verrucosus and Jatifolius are both
natives of Europe; and we might give other in-
stances to shew that such names are not good.

§ 222.
The botanist must attend to varieties when they
are considerable; he must give them a second name,

and mark them with a Greek letter, ¢. ¢. Brassica
oleracea.

et. viridis. ¢; sélenisia:
B. rubra. yn. sabellica.
y- capitata. 9. botrytis.
§. sabauda. i. Napobrassica.
e laciniata. Ke gongylodes.

O 4 Ne fn

216 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETE.

In. this way we can ina few words. designate the
genus, species and varieties of a plant, which the
older botanists could not do without a, long de-
scription.

§ 223.

The great advantage of the Linnean names is not
admitted by some botanists, and therefore they have
attempted a change. First Ehrhart, considering
that there. are No proper genera in nature, but that
these, are invented by the ingenuity of botanists,
proposes, in his. Phytophylaceum, to denominate
every plant by.one word; thus,

Carex dioica he calls Polyglochin.

pulicaris Psyllophora,

== arenarla —~—- Ammorhiza.
————- capillaris Caricella.

——— pallescens Limonaetes.

_ burailis Baeochortus, &

Bys such names the science would be nina
burdened. ‘Fhnere.may be, about 2000) known ge-
nera, and at an average 80,000 plants, which must
all have their appropriate names. But what me: .
mory would be sufficient for such a nomenclature ?

The idea of Wolii is of a very different nature.
He proposes to distinguish every character of a plant,
whether it be the figure of the flower, the stamina,
style, fruit, leaves, root, stem, stipula, florescence,
smell, colour, &c.. by a particular letter, so that the
name of every plant,shall be composed.of these
letters, and Sti shall. convey an. idea of its struc-
ture and properties. However, ingenious such a

.- proposal

NOMENCLATURE OF PLANTS. 917

proposal may be it is impossible to execute it. One
may easily imagine what barbarous words would be
formed by this method, and what a number of con-
sonant might of necessity stand together, which ne
power of utterance could pronounce. To atiain
any facility in such a nomenclature would reguire
a life-time, and. the advantage after all would in-
deed be trifling.

A re VSL

V. PHYSIOLOGY.

& 224,

Besipes the division into the three kingdoms of
nature, (§ 2), natural bodies may with propriety be
arraneed under two chief classes, organized and un-
organized bodies. Unorganized bodies are. those,
which are composed of heterogeneous particles,
either chemically or mechanically combined, and
which are formed, even when they are of some rfe-
eular figure, by external apposition. Organized
bodies, on the contrary, are all those, which are re-
gularly composed of many differently formed or-
vans, which, in the natural and healthy state, are
of the same structure in all the individuals of one
species. ‘They grow larger, not by apposition, but
by an internal power, acting from the interior parts
outwards; and this organic structure, however,
cannot exist without that internal power which is
necessary for its total formation, subsistence and pro-
pagation, and which is called Life,

| As Plants

PHYSIOLOGY. 219

Plants no doubt belone to the lowest order of or-
vanized bodies. Their evolution fron seeds to a
certain size, the formation of the flower and of the
fresh seeds, which are again changed into plants ok
the same kind from wiih they arose; is a con-
tinual circle of formation, existence and decay,
which proves clearly, that plants are living, | or-
ganized bodies*.

S22 .

Organized bodies, in general, exhibit ‘differens
powers, which may be divided into two chief or-
ders: those which are solely produced by their or-
gans, and when life ceases continue for some time
after; and those which in the organs depend ‘en-
tirely on life. To the first belong,

Elasticity, (¢/asticitas), or the tendency of a flexi-
ble body to recover its former figure with some de-
gree of force after extension or compression.

Contractility, (contractilitas s. vis mortua), or the
dead power, which consists in the elongation and
contraction of certain parts.

To the second order belong,

trritability, (irritabilitas), when different aa

* We speak of lite here 1 in its most extensive signification ; 4
for philosophers attribute life to animals only, considering
consciousness as essentially connected with it, of which we
have no proofs in plants. In these to consider life as merely
an organic power, appears to be not at all sufficient. Between
them and animals, which approach plants in their characters,
&ce. it 1s indeed not very easy, throughout, to draw an ac-
curate line of distinction.

produce

229 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c¢:

produce a change in’ the parts! of a bedy, ‘which
without . ane fot have taken: place”

Sensil , (sensilitas), when the ‘stimulus of one
part alt coumnbniared to ail the organs, so as to
produce'a sensation of the stimulus of that’ part/in

Vitali power, (vita pion) or the power by
which the circulation of the sap is promoted * if'1s
this power which supports the growth, final forma»
tion, and all the functions uss the machine.

‘The formative nisus, (nisus formatidus), is the
power by which lost of injured’ parts’ are’ restored,
and which preserves their origitial form”.

§ 226:

All those powers appear in the animal kingdom,

more or less distinctly, and even ‘in plants are not

altogether wanting.
Elasticity is pec a to the wood, branches, 1 leaves,
seed -vessels, a nd other parts of plants. It appears

éven aiter’ their are and is still to be found in
eums, tesins, and other vegetable substances; in
them, however, 1t does not exist im the samie de-
gree after their decay as during life.

Contractilit oye hich plants possess principally dur-
ing life, remains in a great degree, even aiter they

* The expression formative nisus is used here in its more
extensive signification, for that power, which produces: and
preserves the original form of things, and reproduces such of
their parts as they have lost by accident. Cf. Blumenbach,
on Generation. Goettingen, 1791.

die,

PHYSIOLOGY. ! 221

die, chiefly in the wood. This seems’ to: arise from
a change in its chemical component parts. It is well
known that wood when moistened expands, and
when dry contracts,

Formerly it was thought that Jina au gTOW
in breadth only by snpetod of the vinterstices be-
tween the’fibres of the wood, when moisture per-
vades them. Mr De Luc, however,. has shown,
that the fibres themselves may be elongated, though
in a small degree, and again contract. And
has made the singular remark, that box-wood con-
tracts its fibres longitudinally when moist, but clon-
gates them in a dry atmosphere. It however un-
dergoes the changes in breadth in the same manner
as other wood. He examined a great number of
different sorts of wood, but not a single one shew red.
the phenomenon of boxwood.

It is this contractility of wood, which in econo-
mical and technical use, is often followed by most
unpleasant consequences; and, it is on this‘account
that wood 1s subjected to different processes, by
which its contractility is entirely lost.

The dry stalks of Anastatica hierechuntica, known
under the name of the rose of Jericho, and the seed
vessels of the genus Mesembryanthemum, or as
gardeners call it, the Candian flower, retain this
power very long, expand in water, on contract
when dry. The same happens with the Algae and
Mosses, and with the calyx of Carlina vulgaris.
: Many of these parts may serve as Hygrometers.

All plants are possessed of 77 ae y, though not

bow
ed
CD

‘in the same degree., ‘The leaves of Mimosa pudica,

By yg
ye SbnSILIVa,

939 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

sensitiva, ¢asta, ot Oxalis sensitiva, Dionaea musci-
pula, and other plants which grow within the tropics
and under the Equator only, contract when touched.
Less conspicuous, but easily demonstrable, is the
contractility in the indigenous species of sun-dew,
Drosera rotundifolia and longifolia. Vhe filaments of
Urtica, Parietaria, Berberis and others show great
irritability, and likewise the pistils of some plants,
especially the stigma of Martynia. Light acts asa
particular stimulus upon plants as experiments have.
shewn.

Gautier and Brandis think the parenchyma endowed
with irritability, which in animals, after they died of
painful convulsions, they found so strait as when cut
to emit a creaking sound. Rafn speaks of having
found the parenchyma of the species of Euphorbia,
in which he made frequent incisions, in a very tense
state : he does not, however, attempt to decide, whe-
ther the parenchyma is the only substance which
possesses irritability. He assumes a muscular fibre,
(§ 233), in plants, and contends with Abilgaard, that
in all probability the seat of irritability is the pa-
renchyma, and that muscles are its conductors.

Sensation, which in the animal 1s produced only
by the nerves, has not hitherto been met with in
the vegetable kingdom, nor have nerves yet been
found in plants. It does not however follow, that
they are destitute of nerves. But it certainly would
be a precipitate conclusion, were we, with Dr Per-
cival, from some not sufficiently demonstrated facts,
to conclude as infallibly true, that plants have sen-
sation or consciousness. We can go as far only, as
A our

PHYSIOLOGY. BOs

our organs of sense allow us to go. Whether we
would be able with more perfect organs to observe
more, is an useless investigation.

The only thing which could give us some faint
proofs of sensation in plants, would be the experi-
ments with the Galvanic pile. Mr Humboldt did
not succeed in rendering even very sensible plants>
especially the Mimosa pudica, susceptible of it. Rain
tried metallic stimuli wishout eifect in Parietaria, Ber-
beris, Parnassia. In the Mimosa sensitiva, however,
he succeeded whenever he put goldfoil upon the
leaves without shaking them. [ut how easy is it in
such experiments to be misled or deceived !

Vital power is peculiar to plants, as to organized
bodies in general. Vhe simple experiment of let-
ting a plant dry completely in a pot, without water-
ing it, when, after it is completely dry, even by a
careful supply of water, it never grows again, shows
clearly, that its life is lost, and that fluids ascend
through it by other means than capillary tubes,
viele was Hales’s favourite opmion. Van Marum
too has proved by experiment that plants can be de-
prived of life by electric shocks. I have myself
made‘a similar observation. Uaving isolated a very
fast growing plant, the Drosera rotundifolia, 1 ex-
posed. it to an electrical bath, on purpose to ob-
serve whether the irritability of the an would be
augmented, but I found no difference ; AIG aiGen) |
drew sparks from some of the leaves, the plant very
rapidly decayed. The vital power, therefore, may
in plants, as well as in animals, be extinguished by
excessive applicatign of electricity. Moderate use

ol

OA PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

of electricity, on the contrary, according to recent
experiments, proves beneficial both to animals and
vegetables.

Th re sole and characteristic mark of vital power,
as Mr Humboldt justly observes in his Aphorisms,
we find in the combination of the constituent parts,
which in the living body are always combined
against the laws of ihe emical affinity; but as soon
as life ceases, nature restores the balance of affinity
by fermentation, which we clearly observe in dead
animals and their organs, as well as in vegetables.
Bodies, therefore, in retaining life, follow the laws
of vital power; when destitute of it, those ef che-
mica! affimity.

‘The formative nisus is particularly well observed
in the animal kingdom, especially in the Vermes.
But even plants possess it, if we regard their pe-
culiar structure, though they are totally incapable of
reproducing different parts. No leaf whatever, once
urt and purposely mutilated when new, ever re-

roms

a
gains its former shape by the formative nisus. In
some plants which have many filaments, it 1s alleged
that after these has been cut off, something like
laments has been reproduced ; though I don’t ven-
ture to consider this as a certain fact. But even
this could by mo means prove a complete repro
duction, as the filaments had no perfect anthers. We
commonly consider it as a reproducing power, when
4 willow-or other fast crowing tree or shrub, after
having Leen clipped, again shoots forth numberless
new branches. But neither the willow nor other trees
nor shrubs or undershrubs are simple plants, but
compound

PHYSIOLOGY. 295

. compound ones, as we shall afterwards find, (§ 228).
After the clipping of the willow, the sap merely
ascends from the soil, and acts upon the inner bark,
(liber), by which means the buds are evolved and
erow up to branches. , But if we cut off the top of
a palm it decays, being a.simple plant, and we give
up all hope of reproduction. ‘This function mani-
fests itself more distinctly in the bark of shrubs and
trees, which are not of a resinous nature, and heals
their wounds when not of too great a size. We
are therefore intitled to maintain with all justice,
that the power of reproduction exists in a far in-
ferior degree in the vegetable than in the animal
kinedom*.

ve Gongs beet
As all those powers, now enumerated, are pecu-
liar to organized bodies, we may previously con-
clude, that a.certain likeness exists’between animals
and plants, which certainly. cannot be altogether
denied. The incomparable Bonnet has some very
ingenious observations on the eggs, the embryos,

-

* A most remarkable phenomenon takes place in the leaves
of Aristolochia $7640, which might be considered as a reproduc-
tion; it doesnot, however, appear to be so, nor has it yet been
explained. We find in the’ leaves of this plant not unfre-
quently irregular sutures, as if made by art, where the upper
surfacé of the leaf is turned towards the under surface.

What can this be? It does not appear to be produced by
insects. Iam sorry I have not been able, for want of a gar-
den of my own, to make some experiments to ascertain the
point. < |

ee . and

236 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

and their nourishment, and on the genital organs of
animals, compared with those of plants, which we
cannot repeat here. In ancient times philosophers
had such an idea, and Aristotle himself calls plants
reversed animals, Linné proceeded even further,
and we must make some allowance for his very
lively imagination when we find him ealling heat the
heart, and earth the stomach of plants, and, more
justly, comparing the leaves to the lungs.

§ 298.

This likeness which philosophers observed be-
tween animals and plants, chietly consisted in pro-
‘perties, which organized bodies possess without re-
spect to their structure, It is, therefore, certainly
worth while, to consider more accurately, in what
respects plants differ from anunals.

Animals take food by a certain aperture, and
have a particular canal by which they propel their
excrementitious matter.

Plants, on the contrary, take up nourishment with
their whole surface, and possess, except transpira-
tion by the leaves, which they have in common with
animals, no peculiar canal to expel their excrements,
except we consider the drops which we find on the
roots of some luxuriant plants, (of which afterwar as,
§ 275), as a proper instance.

Plants have a structure altogether different from
that of animals. ‘They want bones, muscles, and
nerves, and only consist of variously combined
vessels, which are surrounded by a cellular mem-
brane. ‘The wood, which some have compared

with

PHYSIOLOGY. 99/7

with bones, has certainly not the least likeness to
them.

Plants consist of an external or outermost cuticle;
(epidermis), which, as in animals, is thin and without
vessels. Below this lies the skin, (cutis), which is
full of vessels, and which in woody plants is con-
verted into bark, (cortex). It covers the inner bark,
(liber), which is solely composed of vessels. This
is followed by the a/burnum, or the soft wood, as it
is called. ‘The wood, (/ignum), is inclosed by the
last, and surrounds the pith, (medulla).

The inner bark, alburnum, and wood, are one
and the same substance at different periods of exist-
ence. ‘Uhe inner bark 1s converted into alburnum,;
and this into wood. ‘They are all three compressed
vessels, which are more or less hard, or still soft.

The pith almost entirely disappears in very thick
large trunks, by the increasing solidity of the wood,
and in few plants only remains always throughout
all parts of the trunk. We find it in herbaceous
plants, but most aquatic plants want it entirely.

The stems of herbaceous plants have neither al-
burnum nor wood. ‘The epidermis surrounds their
vascular membrane, which rarely in them is convert-
ed into bark, and in its centre lies a ring of vessels,
corresponding with what in woody plants is called .
the inner bark. Immediately beneath this we have
a more or less dense cellular membrane, (tela cel-
lulosa), which is often very succulent, and next to
it, a fleshy substance, (parenchyma). ‘This incloses
the pith, which in fact is a cellular texture of a dif-
| P 2 ferent

298 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ferent nature, at times dry or juicy , at other timés
‘ consisting of clos¢ and narrow cells.

Animals, with the exception of .some of the
vermes, are simple beings, but most plants not so;
for some plants and alin excepted, which are
simple plants, the rest are all of a compound struc-
ture. If we put the seeds of an annual plant, (§ 122,
No. 3, @.), in the ground, plants grow from it,

which soon flower, produce seeds, and then die. .
The buds of trees and shrubs are to be considered

is annual plants, for as soon as they have blossomed
ne a ne seeds! they” decay, entirely.” “Nhe
trunks of trees and shrubs, as well as the roots of
perennial plants have a great many buds, which are
all of the same nature, and may be considered as
repositories of many other annual ‘plants. ‘They are,
therefore, not simple, but like the polypes in the
animal kingdom, compound bodies. Below the bark
in these plants there are, according to the species,
as we shall more particularly specify, the rudiments
of a number of buds, which by due supply of sap,
may be finally evolved. We are, therefore, not to
go beyond new-formed branches of clipped willows,
(§ 216), as reproduced, though they have been pro- —
duced by the formative nisus, which gives each -
plant its peculiar form and growth. )

G i229.

The chemical principles appear to be different in
vegetables and animals, when considered in general.
But if we take all the single substances, found in

| veges

PHYSIOLOODY. 229

-wegetables by chemical analysis, then we certainly
meet with most of them in the animal kingdom too.
‘The chief vegetable principles are,

1. Caloric, is present in all parts of vegetables,
and constitutes their temperature when free.

2. Light, is found in the oils and other inflam-
mable vegetable substances.

3. The electric fluid shows itself by various elec-
trical phenomena observed in plants.

4, Carbon, is the chief constituent part of all ve-
getables.

5. Hydrogen. ‘This may easily be obtained in a
gazeous form, combined with caloric, from all legu-
minose plants. .

6. Oxygen is, we shall soon find, evolved by the
rays of the sun. Part of it, however, is combined
with acidifiable bases and forms vegetable acids.

7. Azote, is exhaled by plants in the night; the
sreatest part of it however is in a combimed state.

Whether azot belongs to the simple substances,
(elements), or as Goettling supposes, is a
compound of oxygen and light, we miust
leave to the future decision of chemists. At
present we shall consider it as a simple sub-
stance. |

8. Phosphorus occurs in plants of the 15th class,
and in the gramina. Its existence manifestly ap-
pears by the shining of old rotten wood, the root
of the common Tormentilla recta, and of rotte po-
tatoes, Solanum tuberosum, Sc.

9. Sulphur, in form of acid combined with oxy-
gen, 1s met with in many plants, either with potass,

Ps forming

230 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

forming a sulphat of potass, or with soda, as sul-
phat of soda. Even in substance sulphur has been
found in the roots of the Rumex Patientia. After
they were cut down, boiled and scummed, sulphur
appeared in the scum when left to settle.

11. Soda is peculiar to almost all plants growing
on sea-shores or in salt marshes.

12. Silica is found in the stem of the Bambusa
arundinacea, and in the common reed, Arundo Phrag-
mites. It is supposed to exist in the alder, Betula
Alnus, and birch, Betula alba, as their wood often
emits sparks when under the hand of turners.
ne, Alumina, it 1s said, has been found in some
plants. — Ont
TVA Magnesia, some philosophers think, they have
have met with likewise. : |

15. Barytes is chiefly obvious in grasses.

16. Lime is found in almost all vegetables, most
frequently in Chara tomentosa, a pound of which is
said to contain five ounces of it.

17. Iron is detected in the ashes of most plants.

18. Manganese has likewise been sometimes found
in plants*. eno }

* If some have detected gold in the vine, Vitis vinifera,
oak, Quercus rodur, hornbeam, Carpinus betulus, or In ivy,
Hedera hefx, and tin in Spanish broom, Spartium junceum, it
seems merely to have been accidentally, as their presence has
been stated as impossible by late experiments. Of the above
principles, No. 1—¥, and 10, 16 and 17 are found inall plants,
the rest only in some. The Fungi, especially the genera Pez-
iza, Octospora and Byssus have,- according to the Jatest re-
searches, not a vestige of lime.

PHYSIOLOGY. | '93)

§ 230.

Ail the now enumerated principles which have
‘been found in vegetables, belong, as far as chemical
knowledge has advanced, to the elementary or sim-
ple substances. The vital power produces by mix-
ing them, new formed substances, which we cannot
ae in silence. ‘They are the following :

- Volatile oils, composed of carbon and _ hy-
ee are found in all parts of plants, more fre-
quently, however, in warm than in cold climates.

2. Resins, are met with in the roots, bark, wood,
and in the blossoms,and fruits of many plants; and
likewise more frequently in those of warm than of
cold climates.

3. Gum-resins, or such as are composed of gum
and resin. Apothecaries use many of them, ec. g.
the gum Asafoetida, (Herula Asafoctida) ; Gamboge,
(Stalagmitis guttifera) 5 en storax, (Styrax of-
fecinalis), and others.

4. Camphor. ‘This substance we obtain from the
camphor-tree, Laurus camphora and many other
species of laurel, c.g. from the old roots of the
cinnamon-tree, (Laurus Cinnamonum), and others.
Camphor has likewise been found in some of the
essential oils.

5. Fixed or fat oils. These occur in the fruits
of many plants, e. g. in almonds, (Amyegdalus com
munis); in the walnut, (Juglans regia); in the olive,
(Olea europea); in the Ricinus communis, &Fc. -

6. Wax. is likewise found in the fruits of some
plants, ¢. g. of the laurel, (Laurus nobilis), and of the
Myrica cerifera and others. We have it in the pol-

P 4 len

2392 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

len of almost all flowers, and accordingly bees pre-
pare their wax from it.

7. Glutinous matter, in the -berries of some
plants, ¢. g. of the misletoe, Viscum album, and
in the plant from which we obtain the Indian rubber,
Siphonia elastica. |

8. Soapy matter, which ieee greasy spots out of
linen. It occurs in the leaves of the soap-wort,
(Saponaria officinalis); in the fruits of the Saponaria
sapindus; im the common horse chesnut, (Aesculus
fippocastanum); m. many roots, as in cichory, (Cicho-
rium Intybus); burdock, (Arctium Lappa); vipers
grass, (Scorzonera hispanica), Sc.

9. Mucilage is met with in many plants; in the
roots of the marshmallow, (Althaea officinalis); in
the stalks of the goats-thorn, (Astragalus creticus) ;
in the leaves of the round-leaved mallow, (Malva
rotundifolia) ; in the seeds of the quince, (Pyrus cy-
donia); m the flowers of the yellow mullein, (Ver-
bascum fthapsus), We. |

10. Gum exudes in form of smal! globular masses
from the stem of certain trees, ¢. g. the damson-tree,
(Prunus domestica); black cherrytree, (Prunus avium) ;
gum arabic irom the Mimosa ilotica. 7

11. Gluten, which composes the vegetable fibre,
is produced by a combination of carbon and azot.

12. Albumen occurs in many of the culinary
plants, and in the mealy seeds of some of the spe-
cies of cress, nasturtium, and in the squill, (Scilla
maritima).

13. Starch, consisting, it seems, of gluten, farina
and saccharine mucilage. It is found im the ‘seeds
. and

PHYSIOLOGY. . 833

and tuberous roots of many plants, ¢.g. the horse
chesnut, (Aesculus Hippocastanum) ; mn the potatoe,
(Solanum tuberosum) ; in the bryony, (Bryonia
alba); in Paeonia officinalis, Arun maculatum, az
many others.

14. Sugar. This is Hess obtained from a great
-number a plants, of which, however, few yield pure
sugar, most of them only amass like honey, con-
sisting of the sugar dissolved in a gelatinous Huid
from which it cannot be extracted in a state of pu-
rity. Pure sugar is found in the juice of the sugar- -
cane, (Saccharum offcinarum). Some species of the
Acer, especially of the Acer saccharinum, dasycarpum,
some species of birch, (Betula alba, lenta and free),
Cabbage, (Brassica oleracea viridis); beet, (Beta
vulgaris. Plums, cherries, and other fruits leeitadn

sugar. '

A honey-like substance is prepared in the! nec-
faries of most plants, ¢.\g. of. the manna-ash tree,
(Fraxinus Ornus and rotundifolia), of the liquorice
root, (Glycyrrhiza glabra), &c.

15. Bitter principle. .Many plants possess this
principle, as the common wormwood, (Artemisia 4)-
syntbium); water trefoil, (Menyanthes trifoliata); céen-
taury, (Chironia Centaurium) ; common fumitory,
(Fumaria officinalis); Quassia amara, and others*.

16. INa-

*' The nature of the bitter principle of plants is not yet
suficiently known, for it differs from that which we find in
bitter almonds, in the stones of peaches, apricots or plums, in
the leaves of the cherry laurel, inthe seeds of Strychnos Nux

DVOMICA,

-

2o4 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

16. Narcotic principle, which has a particular ef-
fect on the brain, prodticing drowsiness, &c. The
juice of the white poppy, (Papaver somniferum); of
Hyoscyamus niger, Atropa Belladonna, Conium ma-
culatum, Cherophyllum ¢emulum, Aethusa Cynapium,
are instances of it.

17. Acrid principle, which produces a pungent sen-
sation. ‘The horse-radish, (Cochlearia armoracia);
lemon scurvy-grass, (Cochlearea officinalis); arum,
(Arum maculatum) ; water pepper, (Polygonum /y-
dropiper) ; Cayenne pepper, (Capsicum annuum);
black pepper, (Piper nigrum); foxglove, (Digitalis

purpurea); Ranunculus acris; Aconitum Napellus,

and many other vegetables possess it.

18. Gallic acid. ‘This, combined with gum, is
met with in a great number of plants, and is a very
astringent substance. It occurs chiefly in the bark
of trees, such as oak bark, willow, &c.

19. Citric acid: consisting, as all vegetable acids,
of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, which, in each
acid are of different proportions. This acid has
been found in lemons, (Citrus medica); raspberries,
(Rubus idaeus); gooseberries, (Ribes grossularia ;
and myrtle berries, (Vacinium myrtillus).

vomica, the poison nuts, and of Ignatia amara, the Faba febri-

fuga, &c. This last kills all animals, and in greater quantity may

even become noxious to men. The experiments of my friend
Dr Hlohrman in Lund give most striking results: he killed

with eight grains of the poison-nut a strong horse. Prof. Vi-

bourg’s observations on the effects of the cherry laurel like-
evise deserve attention.

9 i 20, Mal-

PHYSIOLOGY. 235

90. Malic acid, occurs in apples, (Pyrus malus) ;
quinces, (Pyrus cydonia) ; strawberries, (lragaria
wesca), and others.

21. Oxalic acid. In the wood sorrel, (Oxalis
acetosella) 5 _herb Robert, (Geranium robertianum) ;
in rhubarb, (Rheum rvabarbarum), and some others.

22, Tartaric acid. In sorrel, (Rumex acetosa);
tamarind, (Tamarindus indica). i

23. Benzoic acid. In benzoin, (Styrax denzoé) ;
balsam of Peru, (Myroxylon peruiferum); and bal-
sam of Tolu, (YVoluitera ba/samum).

94, Ammonia, or volatile alkali, composed of
azot and hydrogen, is found in the species of gra-
mina and mustard, as the white and black mustard,
(Sinapis alba et nigra); in Sysymbrium nasturtium, &c.

§ 231.

Besides the elementary substances, and those com-
bined by the vital power, vegetables contain some
of the neutral salts: sulphat of lime, nitrat of mag-
nesia; the last is found chiefly in the Zea Mays,
nitrat of potass is found in Borago officinalis, Helian-
thus annuus, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, Achil-
lea millefolium, Fumaria officinalis, &c. Sulphat of soda
in Vamarix gallica, muriat of soda in many sea-plants.
in America some plants, it is said, have been detected,
from which muriat of soda may be obtained. Sulphat
of potass is found in the ashes of most vegetables. *

S232

* Still, however, there is an open field for research in
Shae : 6 : i
chemistry. We are partly entirely ignorant of many of

the

236 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

| § 232.

Chemistry makes us acquainted with the com.
ponent parts of vegetables, but Anatomy explains —
their wonderful structure, to which we now there-
fore direct our whole attention.

The last science has detected the following differ-
ent vessels in plants: Adducent vessels, (Vasa addu-
centia) ; reducent vessels, (Vasa reducentia) ; air ves-
sels, (Vasa pneumato-chymifera) ; lymphatic vessels,
(Vasa /ymphatica); cellular texture, (Tela cellulosa),
Vhey may be all observed with a microscope when
injected. ‘This can easily be accomplished by put-
ting a plant in a decoction of brazil-wood, (Czsal-
pinia echinata); which fills the adducent and air
vessels. The reducent vessels only appear, when the
plant is cut at the top, and put inverted in the liquid.
‘The lymphatic vessels, may be seen without injecting
them, merely by carefully taking off the epidermis
and putting the plant under the microscope. ‘The
other vessels, however, except the air vessels and
adducent vessels, can yery seldom be filled with co-
loured liquid. |

Gessner and others, who paid great attention to
the Physiology of plants, have proved the presence
of all these vessels by means of the airpump. And
only lately, Mr Achard tried to inject plants, which

the animal and vegetable principles, and partly destitute of
proper means to separate and analyse them accurately. The
nature of the extractive, dying, bitter, acrid and narcotic prin-
ciples and their varieties, and many others, is still unknown
fo US.

2 were

PHYSIOLOGY. og”

were put in a coloured liquid or mercury, by means
of compression of the air. But not to mention the dan-
ger connected with such experiments, the vessels can
never be seen in their true form, as no doubt many
of them must burst. ~The common method, then,
of injecting them is by far preferable, though we
are not in all plants equally successful with it. ‘The
common ‘balsamime, (impatiens balsamina), is the
plant best suited for such experiments.

§ 233.

Adducent vessels: (Vasa adducentia, moniliformica,
succosa, propria, nutrientia vel fibrosa), ascend per-
pendicularly, and are pretty large in most plants.
As they are always in great numbers close below
the cuticles, they appear, when the stems are cut
through horizontally, in circles. In some young
shrubs and trees, and in some of the more succu-
lent herbaceous plants, they form ellipses, or tri-
angles, pentagons and hexagons. ‘They serve in ve-
eetables the same purpose as arteries in the animal
body. ‘They are commonly quite straight, and
consist of links, which are somewhat contracted,
of which each has at its upper and under part little
prominent margins, leaving, however, an opening
from one link to the other. The inner surface of
these links or vesicles, as we may call them, is
covered ‘with soft slender hairs, which when the
ressels get a more ligneous texture, closely adhere
to them, and make the surface very rough.

Those links are of a different figure, and their
form varies in proportion as the cellular texture

Move

338 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

more or lesscompresses them. We see them, there:
fore, of an elliptical, spherical, compressed, or COs
nical figure. ‘They are largest where the stem ends
and the root begins, but decrease in thickness to-
wards the superior part of the stem, and towards
the ends of the root. In general we can see the
vessels much more distinctly in young plants, where
they are largest, than in old ones, which are more
lieneous. |

Some Hots have thought that these vessels are
formed out of the cellular texture. But it is not
very probable that they owe their origin to the cel-
lular membranes, as these are by far too irregular,
and as they are found already formed in. the corcle
of the seed.

Ve shall soon find that they harden along with
the air vessels and the wood, and that they consti-
tute the ligneous fibre, which is to be well distin.
guished from the muscular fibre. With this the
ligneous fibre, being an indurated vessel, has not
the least resemblance ; besides which no other part
occurs resembling the animal fibre. But as Mr Van
Marum’s experiments have proved, that the vital
power causes them to contract, by which the sap is
pushed forward, it may be asked, whether these
ligneous fibres themselves are not composed of thin
muscular fibres, ‘or at least of a sort of aponeurotic
membrane? But this point will surely never be de-
cided, as the vessels are so very minute themselves
that we must rest satisfied, even with the aid of a
microscope, merely to. ascertain their existence.
Tt certainly would be very difficult to produce any

thing

PHYSIOLOGY. 939

thing better than a hypothesis concerning their
structure, as anatomists, even lately, disputed, whe-
ther by far a larger organ in the human body, the
uterus, possessed any muscular fibres or not.

§ 234.

Reducent vessels, (Vasa reducentia, s. medullaria),
are of great number, and by far softer and more
minute than the first. ‘They lie in the cellular tex-
ture and in the pith, and run either m an oblique
or horizontal direction. In their functions they re-
semble veins. It is with great difficulty they can be
filled with coloured liquors, and soon escape the
eye of the observer. In some species of wood they
become visible in their indurated state by a hori-
zontal section. —

$2355
Air vessels, (Vasa pneumato-chymifera, vasa spi-
ralia, fissure spirales, vel tracheae), are delicate,
membranous, spiral and hollow tubes, which have
other minute vessels, twisting round them in a spiral

direction, like a cork-skrew, some close to each

other, some more or less distant, fig. 282. The
hollow interstices between them contain air, but no
fluid, the spiral vessels themselves however contain
a fluid. ‘The very thin membrane investing the hol-
low interstice, occurs only in the more distantly
twisted vessels; in those which are close to each
other, though present it can scarcely be observed.

They are commonly round; sometimes, however,

by the circumambient presence of the other ves-

cela
sels,

240 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

sels, they become angular. In all ligneous plants
they occur in ereat numbers, and lie in bundles
immediately below ite eee vessels ; in some of
the herhaceous plants, however, they are not found
so numerous and sah in cistinct masses. They
grow thicker towards the roct. Grew says, that he
fe ind them near the root, aes downwards from
right to left, but in the part of the plant above
ground, upwards from left to right. |

We may form an idea of the minuteness of these-
vessels from Hedwig’s cbservation, that with a mi-
eroscope which magnified 290 times he found the
diameter of the hollow interstice of the tube, the
10th part of an inch wide. ‘The real diameter,
therefore, is no more ee: the 290th part of a
line. How minute, therefore, must the ve sssels them-

selves be ?

§ 236.,

Lymphatic vessels, (Vasa lympbatica). These are’
found in the epidermis of plan Ss, and are of great
minuteness, anastomosing in various ways through
small intermediate branches. They surround the
apertures of the cuticle, by which the inhalation
and exhalation of vegetables is carried on; but
they are so minute as not yet to have been filled
with coloured liquids. Round each opening, which
is ay shut by a moveable valve, they form a
eircle, rarely a rhombus, asin the Zea Mays. In the
Lilium caleedonicum those vessels run obliquely, and
somewhat in an irrecular undulating manner, fig.
279. Inthe common onion, (Allium Cepa), they

run

PHYSIOLOGY. DAY

run inastraight, though oblique and regular form,
fig. 280. In the pink, (Dianthus caryophyllus), they
are very straight, with straight and horizontally
transverse branches, fig. 281. In almost every
plant they have their certain and peculiar direction,
which in each remains constantly the same.

Si2an

The cellular texture, (Tela cellulosa, s. utriculi,
contexus cellulosus), signifies a very delicate mem-
brane, which 1s divided into innumerable variously
formed cells or little spaces, which are intimately
connected with each other.. Some philosophers in-
deed have considered those cells or vesicles as pe-
culiar vessels. When this cellular ‘texture is very
tense and succulent, we call it, especially m some
fruits, flesh, (Parenchyma, pars carnosa, § 228).
Pith is a more compact cellular web, which is
distinguished by its bright white colour, by its
smaller and more compressed cells, and by its spongy
appearance.

The communication of some of those vessels or
their anastomosis differs in plants from that of ani-
mals. For the adducent and air vessels always run
along in bundles, which again divide themselves in
smaller bundles. The smaller ones connect them-
selves with larger, and again separate, to join others.
The lymphatics on the contrary anastomose in plants
in the same manner as in animals. ‘The vessels pro-
ceed single for some way, and then divide into
branches which communicate with one another,
and with other vessels.

QO § 138,

24:2 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

§ 238.

Some oi the vessels now described conyey the sap
which differs in its nature in different species of
piants: It is
Resinous, in the different species of fir, &c.
Gummy, in fruit-trees and some species of Mi-

mosa,
Lymphatic, in almost all plants.

Sap likewise varies in colour: It is
White, in Euphorbia, Papaver, Leontodon, Pi-

nus, &c.
Yellow, in Chelidonium.
Red, in Rumex sanguineus, Dracaena draco, Ptero-
arpus santalinus, Calamus Rotang.
Blue, in the root of Pimpinella nigras
Green, in S0me umbellatae.
Colourless in most plants.

The sap in fruits, we know, is of various
tinges. Rafn discovered a great analogy between the
sap of plants and the blood of animals. He detected,
with a microscope magnifying 35 times, in the lymph
of Euphorbia palustris, round globules, like those
in blood, which swam in a fluid which was clear, but
not so clear as water. ‘The same I observed myself
in the sap of the Rhus towxicodendron. Rafn, how-
ever, found in the Euphorbia, besides the glo-
bules, prisms, which he likewise saw in Euphorbia
peplus, helioscopia, esula, cyparissias, and lathyris,
though they differed somewhat. In no plant but the
Euphorbia and Hura crepitans he could detect the
| prisms.

PHYSIOLOGY. WAG

prisms. One drop of lymph of Euphorbia canari-
ensis, Caput Medusae, Chara neriifolia had one or
two prisms only. Alcohol congealed the lymph of
the Euphorbia and precipitated a fibrous matter.
Sulphuric acid had the same effect, but the fibres
were not so thick as the former. The sap of Cheli-
donium consisted of nothing but closely cohering
globules. ‘This goes to prove, that the sap of some
vegetables, for instance, the Potentilla anserina, is
not, as Plenk supposes, merely decomposed or
changed water. Rain found in those plants which
consist of much cellular texture, ¢. ¢. the Musa
paradisiaca, Strelitzia Regina, the globules smaller
and less frequent than in the species of Euphorbia.

§ 239.

We shall soon find that plants with their whole
surface, as far as it is green, with the stem and
leaves, take up part of the atmospherical air and
particles disposed in it, and again transmit air and
moisture. And we cannot be much surprized to
find, that the quantity of matter which they inhale
from the atmosphere, and of that air and moisture
which they exhale, is very great, if we consider that
the number of apertures, which exist in the cuticle
of plants, by lymphatics, (§ 236), in the green stalks,
in both surfaces of the leaves, even in the flower and
Its parts, is so very considerable. Hedwig counted
in the Lilium bu/biferum in one surface of a single
leaf 577 apertures in one cubic lme. A cubic foot
would therefore according to this observation have
about 998145 apertures. Now how many cubic

O2 feet

24 4 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

feet does the surface of all the great and leafy plants
present to the atmosphere, and how great must their
number be, for instance, in a full grown leafy oak-
tree? According to. Hales’s experiments, the mois-
ttre which ascends from the leayes of plants by
transpiration, is very great. A sunflower, three
feet high, transmitted in 12 hours about one pound
and four eunces avoirdupois. When dew fell, this
transpiration ceased entirely, and the leaves ab-
sorbed two or three ounces of it. When there was
no dew, then the transpiration during night amount-
ed to only three ounces. He made many other s!-
milar experiments, and the transpiration was always
considerable in the day time. Mr Watson put a
glass vessel of 20 cubic inches capacity inverted on,
grass, which had been cut during a very intense
heat of the sun, and after many. weeks had passed
without rain; in two minutes tinie it was full of
drops which run down its sides. He collected these
on a piece of muslin, carefully weighed, and repeat-
ed, the experiments for several days between twelve
and three o’clock. And, from this he was led to
calculate, that an acre of land transpired, in 24
hours, 6400 quarts of water. |

§ 240,

As the hfe of animals greatly depends on external.
war mth, plants likewise need. a certain degree of it.
Plants of warm countries want, more of it dan those
which belong to cold regions. These are facts
which need, no further demonstration. But whether
plants, like animals, have a fixed and peculiar. de-

gree

PHYSIOLOGY. OAS

gree of heat, is a question which remains to be an-
swered. We find that trees or shrubs, in cold cli-
mates, if they grow wild, can bear the greatest cold
without harm. As soon as the-warmth of the s spring
commences, their buds are evolved, and they shew
no bad effects from the cold whatsoever, though
their stem and branches be full of moisture. If in
a strong frost we put vessels with water alongside
of such a tree, «we will find that the water is frozen,
but that the tree retains its sap unfrozen, and is not
in the least hurt. ‘The contrary takes place in plants
of warmer and hot regions. Their sap congeals at
the least degree of cold, and the plants decay. ‘Thus
there is evidently a remarkable difference between
the plants of cold and those of hot ¢limates. As
long as plants live and possess sufficient vital power,
to resist cold, their sap will not congeal with cold.
But when in spring cold nights come on, after the
buds have burst, the new shoots perish through frost.
We observe, likewise, that dead or sick branches
are more exposed to be frost-bitten than living
and sound ones, and that branches, by their sap
being congealed, are killed.’ The birch and some
other plants, it is well known, often have their roots
covered with ice, without suffering the least injury.
In the northern hemisphere of our globe are many
and extensive tracts of pine trees, which resist with
their evergreen branches the most violent winter
cold. ‘Those observstions clearly prove, that each
plant possesses a peculiar degree of wa armth accord-
ing to its species, which defends it against the incle-
mency of the weather.

Onan ny But

246 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

But this heat in vegetables is not of such a nature
as to enable us to judge of its degree by our senses
alone. We know that every animal has a certain
degree of heat. We find a frog or lizard cold,
‘notwithstanding nature has given them a peculiar
degree of heat. ‘The temperature of plants is such
as to enable them to resist both heat and cold. If
in a hot summer day we touch some ground which
is much exposed to the rays of the sun, and imme-
diately after put our hand on green grass exposed
to sun-shine, we will find the ground much hotter
than the grass. Fruits, though much in the sun,
will be cool, whereas a glass full of water will be
quite warm in a far shorter time.

Sonnerat detected in the island of Lucon a rivulet,
the water of which was so hot, that a thermometer
immersed into it, rose to 174° Fahrenh. Swal-
lows when flying seven feet high across it, dropped
down motionless. Notwithstanding this heat he found
on its banks two species of Aspalathus and the Vitex
agnus castus, which with their roots swept the water,
In the island of Tanna, Mr Forster found the ground
near a volcano as hot as 210° Fahrenh. and at the
same time covered with flowers.

This then proves clearly, that plants, like ant-
mals, have their peculiar temperature, according to
their native countries, which they cannot exceed
without injury. ‘he experiments of Dr J. Hunter
and Schoepf shew us the same thing. The first put
a Scotch fir, three years old, in a freezing mixture
of between 15° and 17° Farenh, The youngest
shoot was frozen; the fir was again planted, the

young

PHYSIOLOGY. 947

young shoot remained flaccid, but the first and se-
cond were fresh. Of young plants of oats, which
had only three leaves, one leaf was exposed to ar-
tificial cold at 22° which instantly was frozen. ‘The
root was put into the same cold mixture, but did
not freeze. We then planted it, and all its parts
grew well, except the leaf, which had been frozen.
The same experiment he repeated with a growing
bean; a leaf of it was frozen in an artificial freez-
‘Ing mixture, and another fresh leaf was bent in the
middle upon itself, put into a leaden vessel, and along
with it the frozen leaf, which had been previously
thawed. He afterwards put the vessels upon the
top of the freezing mixture. ‘The surfaces of the
two leaves froze as far as they came’ in contact with
the vessels between 15 and 17°, the atmosphere
being at 22°. The frozen leaf froze much sooner.
These experiments were repeated, and always with
the same result. The juice of spinage and cabbage,
when squeezed out, congealed at 29°, and thawed
dgain between 29——-30°. ‘Uhese juices, frozen in a
leaden vessel, were put into another, with a cold
mixture at 28°. A growing fir-shoot, and a bean-
leaf were put upon the frozen liquid which in that
place thawed in a few minutes. The leaves had the
same ellect when removed to other frozen spots,
Schoepi made the following experiments in North
America. He bored holes in different stems, which
he again closed up. :In one of ‘the holes he puta
thermometer at frosty weather, to compare the in-
terna! heat with that of the atmosphere. The re-
sult, however, differed at different times, and in pro-

Be OD te portion

Q48 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

portion to the different thickness of the stem. He
made some other experiments by means of a ther-.
mometer, comparing the temperature of the atmo-
sphere with that of the leaves. ‘The above related
experiments of Mr Hunter plainly shew, that the
juices of plants have a peculiar temperature of their
own. But those of Schoepf cannot serve, as he
himself acknowledges, as decisive prdofs, because
the ligneous stems of plants possess a less degree of
vital power, and indeed the inner bark only (as we
shall soon have occasion to observe, § 297), 1s m
every tree or shrub the seat of this power. The
power of conducting caloric, which certainly in
wood is not so strong as in other bodies, alone, pro-
duces a change of temperature, and renders the ex-
periments of Mr Schoepf very uncertain*.

bet

S45 Alon

But the consideration of the different powers.of
vegetables, their chemical component parts, the
structure of their vessels, of the process of absorp-
tion, of exhalation and temperature, is not sufficient
to convey a complete idea of a plant, We shall,
therefore, go through the whole vegetable world,

oy

* Grass, froots, and the pine tribe, and all plants in gene-
ral which have a more tenacious sap, and can resist.cold better
than others. But trees which lose their leaves, are, as long as the
leaves remain, very' susceptible of its impression. ‘Tvhe reason
seems to be, that all sap, as long as the stem has its leaves,
circulates very quickly, and being thimner, is more liable to
suffer by cold. We find, in early winters, that those trees
which lose their leaves, do not suffer in the least by cold.

from

PHYSIOLOGY. ; 249

from the evolution of plants from seeds to. their
decay, and. briefly lay down the different results of
all the observations hitherto made by philosophers
on. purpose to. become thoroughly acquainted with
the scenes of their life and decay, thus annually
renewed, and. in such various ways.

§ 242.

We are already. acquainted with the nature of the
sced, of plants, (§ 114), and we know that it serves
the same purpose as the egg in animals, to wit, to
contain) the. rudiments of a new being, perfectly, si-
milar to.its:parents, waiting for a favourable oppor-
tunity, to evolve itself.

All plants are propagated by seeds and we can)
‘say with Harvey, omne vivum ex ovo! It is true
that they have not. yet been found in all’ plants,
byt even in those in which their presence was
formerly obstinately denied by philosophers, in
Mosses, Fungi and. Algae, the indefatigable re-
searches of philosophers. have, in. most of these,
clearly proved their existence. We have, therefore,
every reason to expect, that we shall be hereafter
lucky, enough to point. them out in those vegetables
in which we now only suppose them to exist.

A seed has integuments, corcle, and cotyledons,
(§. 114). Itas fixed, as mentioned above, by an um-
bilical cord, and as.soon as.this separates, a cicatrice
remains called the eye, (hilum). In its vicinity lies
the corcle. ven: in the hardest seeds this little spot
is the. only one, not covered by the internal hard
membrane, ;

1s os Re
vA \ Ler

250 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

When the seed is placed in the ground, moisture
soon pervades its substance through this aperture,
assisted by the warmth of the AeROUBHE Te In the
corcle and cotyledons all the before described ves-
sels are present. Inthe last the adducent and air
vessels divide themselves in numberless bundles,
which frequently anastomose, (§ 238). A cellular
membrane covers on both sides those vessels which
spread on one plain surface, and contains the redu-
cent vessels. On both surfaces the lymphatics spread
out and surround the apertures of the cuticle. The
pervading moisture is taken up by the vessels; the
water 1s decomposed by them, and hydrogen and
oxygen transpired. Carbonic acid gas, which seems
to be shut up in the neighbourhood of the umbilicus
by the external and internal membranes of the seed
is likewise set free. The’ gaseous fluid, which was
received from germinating seeds, contained in 10
cubic inches, sometimes 2, sometimes 3, 5, even
8 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas; and from 5 and
6 to 8 cubic inches of azote and hydrogen gas
mixed. “This gas, v when coming in contact with the
oxygen of the atmosphere, exploded at the approach
of a candle. “The rest’ of the undecomposed water,
with the fixed part of carbon’ and hydrogen, per-
vades the vessels more and more, attenuates the
substance of the seed to a milk-white fluid, and ex-
cites thé action’ of the vital power. The vessels,
filled with their sap, carry it to the corcle, which
is elongated by it, and converted into a plant.

The corcle consists, as we saw, (§ 114), of the
rostel, (rostellum), and the plumule, ( plumula).

¥rom

PHYSIOLOGY. 251

From the first arises the root, from the last the
trunk, or the part above ground. Cutting a ger-
minating plant in a perpendicular direction, so as to
divide it in two equal parts, we observe in the middle
of each cotyledon a hollow channel which is called
the chyliferous duct, (Ductus chyliferus), which is
continued as far as the beginning of the rostel, pro-
ceeds between its pith and fleshy substance, and at
last incloses the pith. ‘This duct serves to conduct
the nourishing fluid, which the cotyledons contain,
to the young plant. Ixperience teaches us, that
germinating plants, even though they have some
leaves already evolved, cannot part with their co-
tyledons without endangering their lives, like a
young animal which cannot want the feeding breast
of its mother*.

§ 245.

It is a remarkable phenomenon in the germina-
tion of seeds, that the radicle first elongates, and
pushes into the earth, where as soon as it fixes itself,
and not sooner, the plumule appears in its peculiar

* According to my own experience, the rostel dries up en-
tirely, if immediately after the seed begins to germinate, we
cut off both cotyledons, and all vegetation ceases. Fabbroni,
however, says, that a young plant may lose half of its cotyle-
dons without any bad effects, and he ,even has cut off the
whole, and the vegetation went on. But’ probably this ex~
periment was made on plants where the plinnule was already
somewhat large. Hedwig observes, that the plumule may be
cut off, and that in its place two young shoots will appear.
J doubt very much if this be the case with all plants.

shape,

359 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

shape, (§ 245). Even though the seed should be
mnverted and put into the ground, so as to turn the
rostel towards the surface of the ground, yet it never
will grow upwards. It grows long, but soon turns to-
wards the ground, and then the seed recovers its pro-
per position. ‘This observation, which we ean make .
every day, especially in the kidney bean, (Phaseolus
vulgaris); in the common bean, (Vicia faba), and
other culinary seeds, has greatly attracted the atten-
tion of botanists. Dr Percival compares it to instinct
in animals, and endeavours to prove by it, that plants
have sensation and consciousness. Dr Hedwig ac-
counts for this tendency of the rostel downwards in
a twofold manner: In the first place, the sap is, by
the two chyliferous ducts accumulated in the extre-
imity of the rostel, which therefore becomes heavier,
and of course, according to the laws of gravity, is
drawn downwards. In the second place, the meis-
ture in the extremity of the rostel, is attracted by
that of the ground. But both these reasons appear
to me to be insufficient to explain this phenomenon 5
forfirst, the power of gravity and attraction is one
and the same power; and secondly, the cotyledons
contain by far more moisture, and they possess a
ereater absolute gravity ; but notwithstanding this are
often by the rostel pushed above ground. We are
in fact as little capable of accounting for this pheno-
‘menon, as ‘to give reasons why some caterpillars spin
a case, while others bury themselves in the ground.
We are ignorant of the nature of this as of many other
‘operations in organized bodies. ‘The only reason
which can be brought forward to hide our ignorance

iS,

PHYSIOLOGY. 283

is, to consider it as an action of the vital power.
Dr Percival’s assertion indeed appears to me to be
a very precipitate conclusion.

6 244,

It deserves our attention too, that not all seeds have
the rostel, especially of some aquatic and parasitic
plants, and perhaps all those which Dr Gaertner
styles acotyledones. was, as far as 1 know, the first
who discovered this, when I examined with great
eare the water-caltrops, (rapa natans), one of the
most singular plants. ‘Uhe nuts, as they are called,
of it, when they lie in water, the natural habita.
tion of the plant, shoot forth a long plumule, which
in a perpendicular direction rises towards the sur-
face of the water, its sides push out at certain
‘distances, capillary, branched leaves Some of those
leaves bend downwards and attach themselves at the
bottom. Here then the piant becomes fixed in the
ground, not by a peculiar root, which, as rostel, pre-
existed in the seed, but only through the leaves,
It would be as difficult as in the rostel, to state the
reason, why some of the undermost leaves bend
downwards, and from their capillary extremities
shoot forth roots. |

From this, however, we are enabled to conclude,
that some seeds may want the rostel; but that a ger-
minating seed should perform its functions without
plumule and cotyledons, is impossible. Nobody a:
yet has attempted to deny the existence of the ae
mule in any seed, Linné, Gaertner, Jussieu, and

many

254 ' PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

many other botanists, denied that of the cotyledons,
especially in the class Cryptogamia, (§ 139). Jus-
sieu alone adds to those plants which have no cotyle-
don, Gaertner’s acotyledones, such as want the
rostel. Nature provided plants with their cotyle-
dons, that they might nourish the young plant in
its tender infancy. Never yet have I noticed.a single’
instance where this wise measure of nature was omit-
ted. | examined purposely all those plants which
were said to want the cotyledons, and always met
with them. ‘That in some plants the existence of
the cotyledons was altogether denied, and others’
were said to have one only, others two, and several
plants more than two, arose partly from inaccurate
observation, partly from mistaking a part of the
plumula for a cotyledon. Placenta or cotyledon,
(§ 114), is the name of the whole entire substance
of a seed, not including the parts of the corcle. It
rises in many plants with the plunaule above ground,
and is converted into leaves, or, it remains in the
ground, and, as in the gramina, the first leaf of the
plumule only rises, which is what some thought to.
be a cotyledon. In the flax and the species of fir,
both cotyledons are converted into leaves, and the
leaves of the plumula are evolved immediately after
them, and of the same magnitude and appearance.
Hence it was, that botanists supposed there were
many cotyledons. The division, therefore, of plants
in acotyledones, monocotyledones, dicotyledones and
polycotyledones, 1s erroneous,

PHYSIOLOGY.

rw
on
ea

§ 245.

I have observed five principal varieties, according
to the changes in the cotyledons, which | call mem-
branous corcles, (dermoblastae); filiform corcles,
(nemoblastae); splitted corcles, (plexeoblastae); earth
corcles, (geoblastae) ; and globular corcles, (sphero-
blastae).

§ 246. |

Dermoblastae, 1 call such as have the cotyledon
in form, of a membrane, which bursts in an,irre-
gular manner. This membrane is found in the
Fungi, in which, however, it soon after their evo-
lution disappears.

We want still further observations on this point,
especially in the small Fungi, and even im these,
different modifications may some time appear, which
we at present suppose only, not determine with cer-
tainty. Most of the plants which have this pecu-
liarity are so very small, that their existence and
characteristic varieties only can be observed with
dificulty, but by no means is an accurate know-
ledge of so very minute plants to be expected.

§ 247. -

Nemoblastae. ‘Chose we find in Mosses and Fi-
lices, and perhaps also in Algae. Of these, how-
ever, we still need some more accurate observations.
The subtance of the cotyledon in them divides into
two halves, and bursts into an irregular shape, re-
sembling threads.

va)

ll

256 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

§ 248.

Plexcoblastae are those in which the cotyledons ap-
pear above ground in two halves, and change into
leaves, which are of a different shape than the rest
of the leaves. They are elliptic in the species of
Phaseolus; linear in the umbellatae, and in the
Plantago; cordate in the plants of the sixteenth
class of Linnzeus; inversely cordate in those of the
15th class; reniform in the ringent plants; club-
shaped, and at the point variously intersected, in the
lime-tree.

§ 249.

Geosblastae, 1 call those which keep the substance
of the cotyledons under ground, e. g. the vetch-pea,
the gramina, lilies, &c. They are of a double kind.

Rbhizoblastae, where the seed has a rostel, and
shoots down a2 straight root, as in most plants.

Arhbizoblastae, when the seed wants the rostel, as
in some water and parasitic plants.

§ 250.

Sphaeroblastae, are those whose cotyledons do
not divide in two, but come out of the ground in
form of little globules fixed upon a small stalk, and
have the plumula on their side. This we meet with
in Juncus bufonius, and some plants related to it.
Several botanists who were unacquainted with this
singular modification of germination, have mistaken
the above-mentioned plant for a new one belonging
to the 24th class of Linneeus.

PHYSIOLOGY. 954

§ 251.

it is an old observation, that each plant affects its
peculiar soil, and that on this account, all seeds do
not germinate in all kinds of soil, and at least soon
decay in that which they dislike. Various, trials
have been made, to make seeds germinate in various
matters, different from the usual earths. Sukkow
made sallad plants grow in pounded fluat of lime
and barytes. Bonnet made plants grow in saw-dust,
slips of paper, cotton, and even in. an old book.
That cress, (Lepidium sativum), germinates upon a _
piece of woollen cloth is a well known fact. Mr -
Humboldt’s experiments to make seeds germinate
in metallic oxyds, especially the red oxyd of lead, in
‘itharge, massicot, &c. aremore instructive. In powder
of coal and sulphur, seeds germinated hkewise very
well. , He found that oxygen proved an extreme
stimulus to plants, and that without it, they never
can be brought to germinate. On, this account ger-
mination went on quickly in metallic oxyds, espe-
cially in minium. In oil, on the contrary,) car-
bon, hydrogen, in the filings of lead, iron, and cop-
per, as well as in powdered molybdene and in al-
kalis, no one seed germinated. It soon occurred
to him, that with oxygen as a stimulant he might
forcibly make seeds germinate faster, and he actu-
-ally found, that at the temperature of 20° Reaum. all
seeds vegetated most. rapidly when steeped in oxy-
muriatic acid. One instance only will suffice. The
seeds of the Lepidium sativum germinated after 6
or 7 hours, when put into oxy-muriatic acid; where-

R As

258 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

as when lying in common water, they required from
36 to 38 hours. Ina letter, dated February, 1801,
he writes me, that in Vienna they found much be-
nefit from the discovery of this fact, and that seeds
twenty and thirty years old, brought from the Ba
hama islands, Madagascar, &c. which constantly
vefused to germinate, very readily, in this way, ve-
getated, and produced plants which grew up very
successfully. The Mimosa scandens, which as yet is
not to be found in any botanic garden, grew very
well with this acid. As every gardener cannot ob-
tain the oxy-muriatic acid, Mr Humboldt proposes a
very easy method to procure it without difficulty. |
He took a cubic inch of water, a tea-spoonful of
common muriatic acid, two tea-spoonsful of oxyd of
manganese, mixed it and placed the seeds in them.
The whole was now allowed to digest with a heat of
18—30° Reaum. ‘The seeds all germinated beyond
expectation. It is necessary to.take the seeds out,
as soon as the corcle appears. ‘Uhat the seeds are
not impaired by the acid, is proved by the many
plants which have been treated in this way, under
the inspection of Mr Jacquin, and in which vege-
tation goes on wonderfully well, though many of
them had their seeds steeped in the oxy-muriatic
acid.

It is the oxygen of the atmosphere which stimu-
lates the seed to germination. And this circum-
stance explains at once the experiment of Mr Achard,
why plants vegetate faster in very compressed air,
than in air in its common state.

Besides

PHYSIOLOOY:. 259

Besides oxygen, ammonia too favdurs the ger-
mination of seeds; hence seeds germinate almost
immediately when placed in dung, Ww vhich therefore
serves as manure. . Cow-dung, we know, consists of
muriatic acid and ammonia. In fluids which con-
tain no oxygen, seeds will not germinate. [t never
happens in oil, for instance, meh consists of hy-
drogen and carbon. |

§ 252,

It is the rostel of seeds which eae jee part
of a plant under ground, to which botanists have
given the general name of root, (§ 10). But ese

ologists call that part only a root, which carries
nourishment from the soil to the plant, or what we
before called radicles or fibres, (radicula).

In under-shrubs this part under ground consists
of a bulbous, tuberous, or oblong root. In annual
plants it is more or less perpendicular; and jn shrubs
and trees its formation entirely resembles the stem.
In this, foresters again distinguish two separate parts,
the thick one, which descends perpendicularly, call.
ed the main root; and those parts which run forth
horizontally in the earth, which are their horizonial
roots.

§ 253.

The anatomy shows us, that in biennial herbs
and plants the adducent. and pneumatic vessels
form a circle or ring in the root, the inside
of which is filled with pith, the outside lined with
cellular texture. The reducent vessels lie in the

aR? last 3

260 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

last; the lymphatics with the pores of the cutis in
the epidermis. In many plants of this kind this
circle of vessels is closely pressed towards the centre,
and the cellular texture very succulent and fleshy.
But we never meet with more than one vascular
circle, as there is annually a new one produced, as_
we shall soon see. For as the duration of the first
is only that of a year, or a few months, the new
circle cannot attach itself round the older. One
exception to this we have in the beet, (Beta vulgaris),
which is a biennial plant; its root, when about a
year old, has from five to eight of these vascular
circles. It follows, therefore, that beets produce
them more then once, and they make an’ exception
to the common rule, worthy the notice of physio-
logists. oak |

6 254...
Perennial plants, which have no bulbs, or tuberous
or creeping roots, are provided with a more or less
conspicuous tube of pith, round which the addu-
cent and air vessels form 4 circle, which is inclosed
by avery firm’ cellular texture, ‘surrounded by the
external integuments. “Every year a new circle’ is
added, by the number of which we can always de-
termine their age. ‘This is different in the creeping,
tuberous and firm bulbous roots. They have, ac-
cording to ‘their spéciesy their vessels in a circle
closer to the centre, ‘or moré or less distant from it.
They are annually renewed, and the old ‘ones die.
On this account we find in most of them, fora few
live more than one year, only one circle.

Bulbs,

. PHYSIOLOGY. . 261

Bulbs, consisting of scales or concentric coats,

(§ 43, 1,:2..3.), Dave at their base a fleshy bottom,
from the extremity of which radicles and new bulbs
shoot forth. This consists of a net-like plexus of
vessels, which is not circular as in other roots.
. Plants change their original habitation, and, in
common with animals, move from one place to
another. The creeping roots run forth under
ground, the branch from which the new shoot
arose dies, and the young root now becomes at-
tached to a distant spot. The palmate and testi-
cular root, (§ 11. g. 4), consist, as we saw before,
-of two knobs, one of which completely dries up,
when on the opposite side a new one is formed.
This happens every year, and the plant in this way, —
after many years, appears on a quite different spot.
Solid bulbs, (§ 43. 4.), especially the bulb of the
Colchicum autumnale, undergo the same change;
on the side of the old bulb a new one appears, the
old one decays, and the whole at last becomes at-
tached to a place, distant from that where it formerly
stood *.

§ 255.
Very remarkable, and deserving particular atten-
tion is the choice of food, which has been observed

* ‘The premorse root, (§ 11. 6.), is in the beginning per-
pendicular, After the first year the perpendicular root he-
comes ligneous, and on its sides new branches shoot out. The
old main root must therefore decay, and it really putrifies,
and owes to this particular circumstance its peculiar figure.

Res | in

202 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

i some of the creeping roots. A strawberry plant,
in a garden of excellent soil, was planted in a par-
ticular spot filled with sterile sand. Stalks and roots
all orew out towards the sides where the good soil

vas, but the main plant decayed. Several other re-
drs instances are, at present, inexplicable, as
we know so little of the physiology of plants.

§ 256.

This part of the plant, then, which we know un:
der the name root, however various ‘its shape may
be, has always fibres or radicles, to which’ alone
physiologists choose to give the appellation of root.
These radicles, like the leaves, are annually renewed.
During spring and autumn, in cold and temperate
climates, even in winter, when the whole ground is:
covered with snow, new ones spring in place of the
old-dry ones. In warm and hot climates this hap-
pens during the rainy season, therefore always at a
period when the vegetable world appears to be, as
it were, in a slumber. ‘The radicles grow in the
following manner: a small bundle of air vessels
erows larger, pierces the cutis, and runs into the
yround. It is inclosed in a delicate cellular texture,
covered by a membrane and other more delicate —
vessels, ‘Thus the extreme point of such a radicle
is merely the end of the spiral vessels, which ab-
sorbs the necessary food from the soil, (§ 274).
These fibres, which are never wanting in plants, can-
not perform this function of taking up food longer

than one summer, after which they must be suc-
ceeded by new ones.

PHYSIOLOGY. 263

Q 257.

Not all plants do grow in earth, and therefore the
root does not enter the ground. ‘The parasitic plants
are an exception of this kind. The Cuscuta ewre-
pea, dodder of thyme, when it germinates, lengthens
its filiform plumule, winds round neighbouring
plants, as flax, nettles, &c. and runs along them.
[ts rostel decays, and along the whole surface of
the filiform branchy stalk a kind of warts shoot out,
where it rests upon the other plants, serving as roots.
Algae, but especially Lichens, are, by similar warts,
attached to the trunk of trees, and few pierce their
external membrane. ‘The Sphaeriae grow mostly on
the inner bark of old decayed trees; they pierce or
elevate the external membrane, and are firmly at-
tached by wart-like roots. ‘The mistletoe, (Viscum
album), pervades with its roots the woody part of
branches, and becomes intimately blended with 1.
Amongst the numerous species of parasitic plants
which the torrid zone produces, one species de-
serves notice, which grows abundantly in the Indies
beyond the Ganges, the Epidendrum los aéris, for
it grows and blossoms in the air, when hung up.
Mr Loureiro, who saw this himself, assures us, that
it vegetates hung from the ceilings of rooms for
years, and is uncommonly grateful to the inhabi.
‘tants by the fine odour of its blossoms.

jj § 258.
The root is indeed, in the strictest signification,
the very plant itself, ‘Che stalks, leaves, and flowers
R. 4 iSSUIng

964: PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

issuing from it, are only its elongations which it
makes on purpose to get proper nourishment. These
may be cut off, and the root will always again throw
out new elongations. ~The reot may-be divided, and
each part will form a plant by itself; mot so the
stem, except in some hgneous plants, where the stem
is merely the root elongated. Resinous or dry
plants, as Pinus, Erica, Rhododendrum, are an ex- ,
ception to this, asin them the stem can rarely be
injured, without injurmg the whole plant.

S259, ath

_ Many experiments made by inverting plants, prove.
clearly the above fact. If a plumb or cherry-tree,
not too thick, is with its top bent towards the ground
in the autumnal season, one half of the top covered
with earth, and one half of the roots carefully taken
out of the earth, covered at first with moss, and
then gradually left quite uncovered ; if afterwards in
the following year, the same is done with the rest of
che top of the tree and the roots, the tree will shoot
forth leaves on the branches of the root, and roots
from those of its top, and if due time the root will
come to blossom and bear fruit. A willow is best
adapted for making this experiment in a short time,
and with success. | Lah eos

§ 260.

We have seen, that from the rostel of the seed
the root arose, and from its plumule, which is al-
ways bending uppermost, the upper part of the plant
above ground, whatever its shape may he. »

The

4 ‘ PHYSIOLOGY. 206

The stem of herbs and “shrubs, as weil. as the
trunk, the scape and the stalk, in short all the va-
rieties of the stem, have a channel full of pith, sur-
rounded by cellular texture, in which the reducent
vessels lie. The adducent and air vessels form a
circle round this, or according to the plant, a trian-
gular, pentagonal, or hexagonal assemblage of many
joined bundles, which run in a straight direction.
A thin layer of cellular membrane, and another
membrane full of lymphatics, incloses the whole.

The same happens in the growth of the stems of
trees and shrubs during the first year. Every year a
new bundle of adducent and air vessels in a circular
form is added externally to the old ones. The in-
nermost bundles of vessels are more and more com-
pressed, till the pith at last, except where this is na-
tural to some shrubs and trees, entirely disappears,
or at least is compressed to a very small point. The
interior vascular circles become annually more dense,
and at last get so hard, as to form what is called
wood. ‘The less, or half indurated external circles,
constitute the alburnum, and the outermost one,.which
is just newly formed, is now called the inner bark.
This then is a circle round the stem of the trée, con-
sisting of numerous, young, new formed vascular
bundles. It commonly consists of two parts, the
exterior layer changing into bark, the interior first
forming the alburnum, and then the wood. The
bark, in ligneous plants as well as in herbs, is green
and vascular; but as soon as it grows older, its
green colour changes into brown; still however the
lymphatics retain their power. ‘The more the tree

advances

266 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

advances in age, the browner and darker grows the
bark ; it cracks, and the functlon of expiration can-
not go on as before, nor are the vessels in the cuticle
any longer visible. Some trees and shrubs lose
their bark annually, and reproduce a new'one from
the inner bark. As instances may be given, the
Platanus occidentalis, and the Potentilla fruticosa.

The age of a tree or shrub may be easily deter-
mined by the number of these heneous circles, upon
cutting the stem through, close to the root. In the
same manner the main root shews most accurately
the age by its ligneous circles, when cut directly be-
low the surface of the ground.

In the Palmae, however, according to Daubenton’s
observation, this is very different. For if we cut a
stem horizontally through, we find no difference be-
tween an old or young tree. In them the vascular
bundles don’t dispose themselves in a circular form.
They consist of vessels running in a straight line,
without regular order, and inclosed by a cellular
membrane. Nor do they grow thicker annually
or possess proper bark, but this is formed by the
remnants of the leaves. Daubenton is not inclined
to assion the name of wood to their substance,
and proposes, if it were to be given to their
fibrous substance, the name of Jignum fasciculatum,
to distinguish it from the common wood, which he
calls /ignum reticulatum. ‘As the Palmae are desti-
tute of branches, their leaves arise not from buds,
but are in fact only small separated bundles of ves-
sels of the steni, which expand in a leafy form.

3 Hence

PHYSIOLOGY. 967)

Hence it is that the under part ef the petiolus re-
mains and forms the bark. :

Gr26il,

{f the vascular bundles of a tree or shrub remain
in a straicht direction, the stem ascends without
sending out any branches. ‘The new shoots in the
hazel, (Corylus Avellana), Berberis vulgaris and
all which the trunk of trees produce when lopped,
are a proof of this. As soon, however, as the air-
vessels become convoluted, and form a knot, branches
are formed. By assistance of art such straight shoots
' may be brought to branch, by making a transverse
incision through their bark. ‘The separated air-ves-
sels heal the lips of the wound, are several times
convoluted, and growing larger are obliged to form
more gems from which branches arise,

§ 262.

The growth of ligneous plants admits of five va-
rleties :

1. Trees and shrubs, (Arbores et frutices), have
their stems beset with leaves. On the base of each
petiolus a bud or gem is formed, which again
becomes a leafy branch, provided with gems of
the same kind, and undergoing the same changes.
If the main shoot grows at first in a straight line to
a certain height without the buds on its sides being
able, on account of the too hasty circulation of the
sap, to form themselves into branches, or these,
should they really be formed, not able to grow any
more, such a plant then becomes a tree, which has a

straight

268 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

straight and. simple stem, with a branchy divided
top. But if the stem divides near the root, when
the sap circulates more slowly, and each bud can
unfold a branch, then this plant isa shrub. By
means of change of soil, place, climate, and by art,
trees may be changed into shrubs, and wice versa.

2. Under shrubs, (Frutices minores), have very
leafy branches, which, however, are very small, and
only deposite a very delicate circle of vessels.
Hence every bud attached to a petiolus is not then
really evolved, as their branches are very few.
‘They are besides, as their branches are so delicate,
of short duration, and often replace their old de-
eayed branches, by young shoots from the root.

8. The pine tribe, (arbores accrosae). ‘Here we
find, likewise, very leafy branches, but which on
their extreme points only, and on one spot evolve
several buds, of which that in the middle grows
in a straight direction, the other diverging on its
sides. Hence the appearance of some pines like -
that of a twirling stick, by which, as every year a
new one is added, the age of the tree may be
found. He
4. Shrubby eramina, (gramuina fruticosa), have a
knotty culm, with dispersedly attached leaves. Each
knot sends forth branches, . but without a knot no
ante appear.

. Palmae et Lilia frutescentia. ‘These have a sim-
oe stem, which has, leaves only at its top; and if |
this is injured, the stem decays. The last sometimes
retain their life by lateral branches, but with the

loss of the beauty of their growth and appearance.
Besides

‘PHYSIOLOGY. 269

Besides these varieties of ligneous plants, there are
many which make’a transition from one to the other.

§ 263.

The Palms present the most beautiful of all lig-
neous stems, which kind nature has given to the
warm climates exclusively. But after them, the par-
ticular growth of some trees in the West Indies,
which are not of the palm tribe, deserve notice.
To those belong the species Theophrasta and Spa-
thelia. They have a simple, very high, branchless
stem, which in its whole surface is ornamented with
bundles of leaves. ‘The appearance of a landscape
with groupes of such trees must be very singular
indeed. |

A tree which grows in Africa, on‘ the Senegal,
presents the most irregular appearance, and which

‘fio doubt is the thickest tree on the globe. It is the
Adansonia digitata. Its stem is only ten or twelve
feet high, but so thick that its diameter is found to
be from 25 to 30 feet. Its circumference, therefore,
is from about 75 to 90 feet. Its top is very re-
markable, for numerous and thick branches, of from
30 to 60 feet in length, run out from it in all di-
rections. We ought, therefore, not to be surprised
that sometimes the hollow trunk of the Adansonia is
the abode of several negro families.

Not less wonderful is the tree called Rhizophora
mangle, which bends its branches perpendicularly to

the ground, and changes them into stems, so that

one single tree covers the muddy rivers under
the tropics of Asia, Africa and America, for more
than

270 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

han a mile with a forest, consisting of numberless
stems, which at the top have the appearance of a
close clipped bower.

§ 264. :

But there are varieties of stems, which at first
sight seareely would be counted as such ; and which
indeed, with regard to the structure of their vessels,
are different. Che whole genus Cactus with its va-
ricties is an instance of this kind: fig, 233, repre-
sents astem of it. ‘The different links which com-
monly are taken for leaves, are parts of the stem.
The leaves themselves are subulate, fleshy points,
which on their base are covered with small prickles. )
They fall off, as soon as a bark 1s properly formed,
and their former place is marked by the remaining
bundles of prickles. Uhe stem of some species of
the genus Euphorbia, Cacalia and Stapelia, is of the
same. nature. The links of the stem consist of a
double net-work of air and adducent vessels; the
whole is surrounded by a dense, cellular texture, or
a fleshy substance, and the cutis itself, has such net-
works of lymphatic vessels with apertures.

| § 265.

‘The thorn, (§ 47), is, with regard to its anato-
mical structure, to be considered as a ligneous stem,
and does in no respect differ from it. It arises most
generally from an incompletely evolved bud which
has begun to form itself, but wanting a proper sup-
ply of nourishment, remains only in form of a very

short, sharp, and bare twig. It is like the woody
stem

PHYSIOLOGY: 271

stem of a tree or shrub, formed of the air and ad-
ducent vessels, which have grown completely hard.
-It therefore remains fixed, though the bark be taken
off. That it arises from a want of food is easily
proved by the cultivation of thorny plants. Most
species of our fruit trees have thorns, but having
been supplied in our gardens with extra food, they
become boughs, and at last disappear entirely. Only
such plants as the black thorn, which are almost
covered with thorns, don’t lose them entirely by
that treatment, though their number is always di-
minished.

Nearly the same thing takes place in thorns, which
are not formed from imperféctly evolved buds, but
are other parts of plants, changed in their appear:
ance. Sometimes the petioli of pinnate leaves, when
they remain after the leaves have dropped off, be-
come thorns, as in Astragalus tragacantha, and other
species of that genus. On the peduncles they grow
larger, sharper, and assume, after the flower and
fruit have fallen off, the shape of thorns; for in-
stance, Hedysarum cornutum: or lastly, the stipulae
become sharp, ligneous, they remain and change into
thorns, for instance in the Mimosa. Such changes,
which frequently occur, especially in oriental plants,
are generally very regular in their recurrence. _

§ 266.

The prickle, (§ 48), is a prolongation of the
cutis, and can therefore be taken off along with it.
This consists of reticular, more or less expanded,
adducent vessels, anda few air vessels, and is covered

with

ae PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, &c.

with the vascular cutis. The most careful cultivas
tion cannot convert aprickle into a shoot, as its air.
vessels beeome-very rapidly lhgneous,. and separate
from the inner bark, and it is therefore only kept
from. dropping off, by the covering cutis. Prickles
have sometimes a peculiar shape; they are almost of
the shape of contorted tendrils in Nauclea acwleata
and other plants. Even the stipulae of some plants
are’ converted into prickles, for instance, Robinia
pseudacacia, Berberis vulgaris, &c.

§ 267.

Tendrils ‘have the same structure with regard to
their vessels, which herbaceous stems have. ‘They
are in fact petioh without the leafy expansion, but
which, having not wasted their sap in the formation.
of leaves, have grown longer, and on this account
have become too thin and feeble to keep their
straight direction. Hence arises their twisted shape.
It appears, as if the diminished force of the current
of air hassome influence upon the tendril. For each
plant ‘that’ supports itself by tendrils, when distant
from a wall, tree or shrub, sends out all its tendrils
towards that side’ on which the plant is.to attach
itself. At least this phenomenon can scarcely be ex-
plained in any other way.

§ 268. |
The pith which is found in the centre of stems,
(§ 278), is a soft and spongy cellular texture, which
commonly is of a remarkably splendid white colour.
ft is not the least different from cellular texture,
4 and

PHYSIOLOGY. 275

and in no-respect like the spinal marrow of animals.
Nature seems to have provided plants with it on pur-
pose to deposit in it a store of moisture, that. they
may not suffer during drought. Hence all young
trees and shrubs have it, because as soon as they
grow they want it no longer, the wood being an ex-
cellent substitute. On the same account we don’t
find it in water plants, as they very rarely suffer
from drought; all of them have a hollow stem,
without any pith. —

§ 269.

The gem or bud is the embryo of a future branch,
and its anatomy, therefore, perfectly coincides with
the anatomy of the stems and leaves, as they are in-
closed in it, though very minute. The period of
their formation diifers in different plants. In cold
regions the bud is formed in autumn, covered ‘with
a great many scales, and so prepared for the mild
spring. In warm and hot regions this is different ;
there no pernicious frost destroys the blossoms of
the spring, and cold does not impair the vital power
of the vegetable creation, therefore no precaution
was necessary. We see then, the buds unfold
themselves immediately from the bark into branches,
without having remained there in the form of buds
for any length of time. However, here we meet
likewise with exceptions. Hot climates too, have
some bud-bearing plants, as well as we in our cli-
mate possess a few shrubs, especially the Rhamnus
frangula, which never bud. Each bud unfolds a
branch with leaves, which at the base of each peti-

8 ale,

OT bs PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ole, again produce buds. In this manner their growili

continues. But this evolution of buds from buds

would continue without stopping were it not so res.
gulated, that each bud, as soon as the blossoms and

fruits are perfectly formed, decays. ‘Then the branches

stop in their growth. Each bud, as plants in gene-

ral in all their parts, is formed by the air-vessels. ,
Cutting a bud in a transverse direction, a white

spot appears, continued to the very extremity of the

bud, which is nothing else than a bundle of air,
vessels. If the same is done atan early period, an

elongation of a very small bundle of the same kind

is only found.

§ 270.

The leaves are composed of the same vessels of
which the root, stems, and other parts of vegetables
consist: But the manner in which they are dis-
' posed presents a remarkable difference. A great
bundle of vessels enters the base of the leaf, and
spreads on its surface in a reticular manner, anasto-
mosiig like plants, (§ 238). On this anastomosing
of the vessels of leaves depends their form, and as
it differs in each plant, we need not be surprised at
the diversity of leaves. If the large vascular fascicle
divides in three great divisions, a triangular leaf is
formed; if it divides in more, then we see all the
species of compound leaves arise, which, we have
described in the Terminology. If for instance the
vascular fascicle at the base of the leaf splits into
smaller ones, a nerved leaf is formed. But if it

run

PHYSIOLOGY. 975
vun straight forward, emitting single fascicles on its
sides, then we have a veined leaf. If there are on
the margins of the leaf numerous anastomoses, sucht
a leaf is then called folium integerrimum. But if the
fascicles spread in small unconnected branches to-
wards the margin, the leaf becomes, according to
circumstances, serrated, dentated, crenate, and so

orth.

These fascicles of vessels in leaves are composed
of air and adducent vessels. The net-work they form,
is in both its surfaces covered with cellular texture,
in which the reducent vessels lie. And the external
membrane or cutis which on both sides invests the
cellular texture, is provided with innumerable lym-
phatic vessels, (§ 235), and their exhaling pores.

The footstalk of leaves resembles in its structure
that of the stem, except that the air-vessels on its
base by their convolutions form a knot, which
serves for the evolution of the bud, their direction
having been changed. In sessile leaves, or such,
which want the footstalk, we seldom find such a
knot formed by vessels, and therefore they will not
always produce buds at their base.

Sy Arik at

Of all the parts of plants, the leaves shew the
most singular irritability ; and particularly the com-
pound leaves of many plants are very susceptible of
stimuli. Merely by touching the leaves of Mimosa
pudica, sensitiva, casta, Oxalis sensitiva ; Smithia sen-
sitive and many others, they instantly contract
» 2 and

2'76 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

and fall down; if single leaves or the main
footstalk be touched, they remain contracted for
some minutes. Almost all triangular leaves, and
leaves which are composed of several small ones,
contract at night time, like the above plants,
in such a manner that one leaf covers the other,
and the whole becomes, as it were, compressed.
Whoever will take the trouble to examine the
plants of a garden at night-time with a lantern in
his hand, will find several of them in this state,
which has been compared to sleep, (§ 7). ‘There
are plants which, at a certain hour in the day, open
and close their leaves. Du Hamel made experi-
ments with the Mimosa sesitiva, which at a certain
hour in the evening shuts its leaves, and again at a
certain time opens them in the morning. He put
this plant in a leathern trunk, covered with woollen
blankets, and found that its leaves opened at a certain
hour in the morning, and again were shut up in the
evening. It has been alleged, that this phenomenon
varies in its period, when going on in vacuo.

A plant which grows in the marshes of South
Carolina, known under the name of Dionoea Mus.
cipula has a singularly constructed leaf. At the apex
of a lanceolate leaf an elongation is seen armed with
short prickles, which as soon as an insect or other
sinall body is put upon it, shuts itself, and does not
open, till the body caught by it becomes quiet.

The species of Drosera rotundifolia and longifolia,
the leaves of which are provided on their margins

and

PHYSIOLOGY. BT.

and surfaces with petioled glands, contract, accord
ing to Roth’s observations, when stimulated, though
very slowly.

A species of filix in North America, the Onoclea
sensibilis, has got this appellation merely from the
circumstance, that its young leaves, when they begin
to unfold themselves, shrink upon the least touch.
The Nepenthes distillatoria, growing in Ceylon, has
on the apex of its leaves a leaf-like ascidium, (§ 33),
of which fig. 28 is a representation, which at times
opens and closes, and even is filled with water.

Of all plants, however, in that respect, the most
singular is the Hedysarum gyrans, growing on the
banks of the Ganges. It has trifoliate leaves, of .
which the central one is larger than the two others.
All these leaves move spontaneously. The large
one rises backward up and down, the two smaller
leaves at the sides have the same movement, only
somewhat stronger. Laying hold of these leaves,
and then removing the hand, quickens their motions,
as if they were to make up for the lost time, till at
last they return to their former slower motion. No
particular stimulus seems to act on them, and they
do not contract like other irritable plants. Nor
does this motion of the leaves depend on sun light,
for they move in light as well as in the dark, even
when the leaves are perfectly asleep. It is besides
remarkable, that the leaves in the height of erection,
and during very warm but serene days, like the ani-
mal muscular fibre, shew a tremulous motion.

S 3 ey jo§. 279

278 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

§ 272, |

That plants transpire, has been said before, (§ 239),
and that the leaves, as well as the stems and branches
of trees, which are provided with the apertures be-
fore described, (§ 236), serve these functions, ex-
perience teaches us. Bonnet covered leaves with
oil, and found that they grew black and decayed.

Most ofthe philosophers, whohave made experiments
on. this part of vegetable Physiology agree, that it is
the upper surface of the leaf chiefly which performs
the transpiration. However, it seems not yet de-
cidedly proved, whether there is not in various plants
some difference in that respect, and whether or not
both surfaces sometimes equally transpire ?

In young leaves we often see the transpired matter
hang in form of small drops. <A young plant of.
poppy, (Papaver somniferum), as well as young wheat,
has, after cool nights, always a drop of moisture hang-
ing on the points of its leaves, which disappears in
day time, and in vain is looked for in the grown
plant. Arum macrorhizon shews the same on its
young leaves in our hot-houses. A new simple
leaved species of the Mimosa from New Holland,
has on the base of each leaf on its upper surface
such drops. The Hibiscus abe/moschus has, on the
under surface of its leaves, a great quantity of drops,

§ 273. | bi
Besides the moisture which the parts of vege-
tables, especially their leaves transpire, they likewise
give out gases. ‘This respiratory process, as it may
A he

“PHYSIOLOGY. geN9

be called, of plants, was first discovered by Bonnet
in the year 1754; after him more accurately observ-
ed by Priestley in 1773, who was followed in 1779 by
Ingenhouss, and soon by many other celebrated chy-
- mists,’ of which we shali only mention Sennebier,
Scheele, Achard, Sherer and Succow. No branch
of the Physiology of plants has been examined with
more numerous experiments. We shall not at
present repeat all those, which confirm the pheno-
menon of transpiration in vegetables, and which
throw new light on the whole Physiology of the
vegetable kingdom ; the various results will suffice,
which are to be deduced from such minute and
careful experiments.

Plants in general, but particularly their leaves,
emit oxygen gas, when exposed to the sunshine ; at
night time, however, during darkness, they exhale
carbonic acid gas. At sunshine the pine-tribe, the
gramina, and many of the succulent plants, exhale a
vast quantity of oxygen gas. The leaves of trees
emit less of it than herbs. No oxygen gas what-
ever, even when exposed to the sun, is exhaled by
flex aquifolium ; Pranus laurocerasus ; Mimosa sen-
sitiva, Acer foliis variegatis, the petala, ripe fruits,
the bark of trees,.the footstalks or the fibres of
leaves. The gas which is emitted during night is
by far less in quantity, and not in all plants pure
carbonic acid gas, but often mixed with azote and
hydrogen. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that
in the great number of plants the modifications of
hese gases are various.

S 4

tH?
aes

280 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETE€.

§ 274. :

Krom all those circumstances together, which we
have hitherto explained, compared with the observa-
tions which we intend still to make, we are enabled
‘o make some general conclusions with regard to

The air-vessels, (§ 235), no doubt perform -
‘ost Important functions in plants. Their won-
derful structure alone, (fig. 282), were we not to
attend, to what we have said. of them in the preceding
page, would lead us to conclude, that they must be
destined to answer very important purposes. No-
bedy, however, has as yet offered a decided opinion
with regard to their operations. We shall therefore
now make an attempt to explain their use.

That vegetables have hfe, was proved, (§ 224,
226), betore. If we now compare this vegetable
life with that of animals, we will, sensation except-
ed, find very little difference. We observe that ani-
mals are provided with one or more apertures, by
which they inhale air, and without which life ceases.
We find that they take in food by one aperture, which
food, according to the difference of animals, must pass
through variously-shaped canals; that they prepare
from it those particles which are fit to support life,
and which are assimilated by the vital power. Fur-
ther, we see that the remnants of the alimentary
mass, as soon as they cease to contain any thing’ ser-
viceable for the machine, are thrown out. Noanimal
can subsist without those processes, none grow and
thrive. Does not, therefore, nature follow a similar

plan

PHYSIOLOGY. 281-

plan in vegetables, which, as we know, take in food,
and exhale gaseous fluids? Were we quite st-an-
gers to the structure of the organs and vessels in the
vegetable kingdom, we might however be able to
draw that conclusion a priori. But we know their
structure, and need not form hypotheses, as we are
acquainted with the nature of the air-vessels. They
act, at the same time, asthe trachea and as the in-
testines of plants. ‘The radicles or fibres of the
roots, consist almost entirely of air-vessels. “They
imbibe, with their spirally winding channels, the
necessary moisture. The hollow air-vessels carry
carbonic acid gas, which has become free, through
caloric as well as oxygen gas. ‘They convey the
whole to the root. The vital power fixes the car-
bon, and decomposes the water, (§ 278).

Vhe chief food of plants consists of carbon and
hydrogen. ‘The hollow air-vessels carry the oxygen
gas, which was formed during the day, out of the
plant, and at night time, when the rays of the sun
are wanting to evolve more oxygen gas, they exhale,
through the pores of the cutis, carbonic acid gas,
which they received from the ground, and which,
for want of light, they could not keep fixed. The
more convoluted vessels, by means of those con-
volutions, prepare, by aid of light, the secreted
juices, and carry the rest, in form of thin vapours,
off through the pores of the cutis. These apertures
or pores, which have valves, by which they may close
and shut themselves, are certainly the ends of the
air-vessels ; at least we may suppose this with cer-
gainty almost, though ocular demonstration is still

4 | wanting.

989 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

wanting. Those juices which are salutary and ready
prepared, are now deposited in the cellular texture,
from which, most probably, the rest of the vessels
receive them. The air-vessels, besides, inhale at-
mospheric air, and the different matters dissolved in
it, and decompose it into the necessary carbon and
other constituent parts, by means of the light and
vital power, to prepare them in the same’ way as
those’ taken up by the root.

"These air vessels, therefore, were we to compare
them to the organs of the animal body, serve as
lungs, mouth, stomach, mesentery and anus.

§ 275.

Yhe excrements of plants are not so considerable
or conspicuous as those of most animals, as their
food consists of water and air only. ‘They cannot,
therefore, emit the superfluous matter which is of
no further service to them, under any form, but that
of air. ‘heir transpiration, (§ 239), and the gaseous
fluids which they exhale, (§ 2773), prove this clearly.
Mr Brugmanns, however, asserts even in them to
have observed a particular excrementitious matter,
which deserves farther’ notice. He saw in some
luxuriant plants which he had in a glass vessel
filled with earth, that during night there appeared
on their radicles a drop of moisture, and observed
distinctly, that when such a drop came in contact
with the radicles of other plants not so luxuriant,
the last soon became dry. If this happened re-

peatedly, the plant decayed. He says he found that,
; ‘Oats,

. PHYSIOLOGY. 283

@ats, (Avena sativa), was killed in this manner by
Serratula arvensis.
Flax, (Linum wsitatissimum), by the Scabiosa arvensis
and Euphorbia peplus.
Wheat, (Triticum aestivum), by Erigeron acre.
Buck-wheat, (Polygonum Suda id Spergula
ATVENSIS»
Carrots, (Daucus carota), by the Inula Helenium, and
that the different weeds, as they are called, hinder
thus the growth of the above plants. From this ob-
servation, if it should be confirmed by further re-
searches, the antipathy of different plants might be
explained.’ But might not the growing of the one
and the death of the other be explained upon the
simple principle, that, as weeds consume the same
food with cultivated plants, the first perhaps take
up ‘the nourishing matter with a greater velocity ‘
This remains still to be determined.

S276.

The nature of the circulation of sap in plants,-is
at present still) involved in great obscurity. In our
times nobody, I suppose, will choose to maintain with
with Jampert, mathematically, that plants have no
vessels, as Grew, Malpighi, Muftel, Moldenhawer and
Hedwig have stated and proved their presence long
ago, and eyen ocular inspection may convince all re-
maining sceptics of this truth. Notwithstanding, how-
ever, we are still 1gnorant of the manney in which the
sap passes through these channels. Dr Hales ascribes
the ascent of the sap to the rarification of air and ca-
pillary attraction. Some allege, that the sap ascends

during

284: PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

during warm weather, but descends again when cold
supervenes. Others only allow the ascent of the sap
and its transpiration through the pores of the cutis,
but deny its descent or reflux, as this, they believe,
would hurt the structure of the plant.

Malpighi was the first who ascribed irritability to
the smaller vessels, and supposed that they were
sometimes contracted, sometimes dilated in diameter.
This philosopher even asserts, that in one of the air
vessels he actually observed a peristaltic motion of
its spiral windings, similar to that of the animal in-
testines. But was he not deceived by the elasticity
of the twisted vessels, which to see them distinctly
must be separated

Brugmanns confirmed this irritability of slants
which Malpighi only suspected, by a series of ele-
gant experiments. Branches of the Euphorbia /a-
thyris and myrsinites, when cut off, discharged a con-
siderable quantity of milk-like fluid out of their ves-
sels. ‘Chis haemorrhage he stopped immediately by
a solution of alum and sulphat of iron, which was
so diluted as not in the least to stain paper or linen.
The stoppage of the flow of the juice is certainly to
be ascribed only to the solution of the alum and
sulphat of iron, contracting the apertures of the
vessels. Van Marum repeated this experiment, but
without the same result. . It is indeed put beyond
doubt, that the propulsion of the sap depends on the
peculiar contraction and dilatation of the vessels, not
on capillary attraction, nor on the rarification of the
air by means of the solar rays. Even Bonnet him-

self, who at first adhered strictly to Hales’s opinion,
found

PHYSIOLOGY. 285

found himself induced by Van Marum’s observa-
tions, to change it, and to admit the irritability of
the vessels, as the sole cause of the circulation of the
sap in them.

If we now contemplate the vegetable world with
attention, and accurately observe this phenomenon
in it, we will no longer doubt, provided a conelu-
fion from analogy be allowed, that in plants as well
as in animals, a real circulation of the sap takes
place, not a mere ascent and descent of it. Still,
however, nobody has yet proved it, and few indeed
have even with Malpighi and others ventured to ad-
mit it. But is it possible, that through a mere ascent
and descent of the sap, the leafless tree is able to
resist the cold, if there be not a circulation of the
sap? A stoppage of the motion of the sap, or a con-
stant descent of it during cold, certainly cannot be
maintained; it is even contradicted by experience,
If we admit the first, then the sap of a tree would
congeal without injury during winter. Now we
know, which happens especially with delicate exotic
plants, that by a sudden invasion of intense cold
the sap congeals, and the plant, at least most of its

parts, are lost. If, on the contrary, we believe that
the sap in winter is constantly descending, whence
proceeds all the moisture during this long period,
especially as the temperature is so low that even a
delicate leaf cannot subsist? There must be a cir-
eulation, of whatever nature it be.

We have not yet found in vegetables one point,
like the heart of animals, from which the motion of
the sap commences. But it does not follow, that no

circu:

286 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

circulation is possible. What we suspect at present,
the labours of philosophers in some future period:
will, it is to be hoped, establish as a truth, Per-
haps this point, from which in vegetables the sap
seems to ascend and descend, is only to be sought,
where the parts above and below ground take their
rise.

The experiment mentioned before, (§ 259), to
imvert a tree, and to change its roots into its top,
and the reverse, has commonly been adduced as a
proof of the ascent and descent of the sap. It has
even been alleged, that by this means those channels
which carry the sap upwards, are forced to send it
downwards in their new position. But in making
this objection, it seems to have been forgotten, that
the sap must likewise circulate in the root, which
not only sends it forth to the stem, but in summer
grows itself larger, in the same proportion as the
stem does: that Grew found the air vessels winding
in the root in a different direction from the stem,
(§ 235), and that we are not entitled to conclude
that in an Inverted plant the same vessels must
carry the sap in a reverse direction. It is not the.
same thing to invert an animal, and to put it upon
its head, and to invert a plant. The one will not
remain long in this situation without being mate-
rially hurt, whilst the other will not suffer from it.

§ Dic
What has been always adduced as another proof
of the ascent and descent of the sap in plants, is the
important, but altogether mistaken phenomenon,
that

PHYSIOLOGY. 237

that after the middle of January, with us atter the
20th, the sap enters trees. At this period it is
thought to descend, to be ready in the spring. But
whoever thinks that trees, shrubs or herbs are, as
it were, dead in winter, and without action, is much
mistaken. I shall endeavour to,refute this opinion,
and to represent this fact in the. Way it ought to be
considered, |
During the whole summer the root sends the
food which it has imbibed by its radicles to the
stem, and what the stem receives from the leaves
is constantly wasted in the formation of new parts,
till either this evolution ceases, from the strength
being exhausted, as in annual plants, or till the parts
above ground, which can no longer resist the incle-
mency of the weather, become separated, as in herbs,
shrubs and trees. With the fall of the leaves in
ligneous plants, and with the drying of the stem in
herbs, all their vegetating powers are exhausted.
The great quantity of moisture which the root for-
warded to the plant, is consumed, in trees and
shrubs, in the formation of branches, of wood,
splint, inner bark, leaves, blossoms and fruit, as
well as in the growth of the root: in herbs, in the
formation of the parts above ground, the fruit and
the root itself. ‘These fibres, which hitherto con-~
veyed the food, begin to become harder, and are no
longer able to serve this purpose. ‘The sap which
circulates in the vessels can no longer produce new
shoots above ground, as the temperature is unfa-
yourable. From the moment, then, that the leaves
of ligneous plants and the stems of herbs decay,
the

288 FRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

the plant begins to form new radicles in place of the
old ones. If at this period, in the latter part of
autumn till the middle of January in our climates,
a birch or walnut is bored, we get no sap. The |
tree has sap, but only as much as it just wants, and
as suffices to form new radicles. Wence fruit-trees,
which had too much fruit, decay, because their
strength by the too great waste of sap is exhausted
If such a tree or shrub has formed radicles, before the
middle of January, those active young radicles per-
form their new functions. ‘They imbibe moisture,
whicly they deposite in the cellular texture, and col-
Ject in this manner as much sap, as the wasting of it
by the vegetable powers, which in the next summer
season are required, makes necessary. If at this time
a stem is bored, a great quantity of moisture flows
out, in those plants which receive a great quantity
of it. But if at the end of January or February,
the weather becomes mild, this flow of sap ceases
altogether, and trees when only then bored, give
nosap. ‘This flows again when the weather becomes
cold. ‘Those who adhere to the theory of the ascent
and descent of the sap, say, that in warm weather
the sap ascended too high, and in cold descended
too low. This singular change, however, of its
‘lowing and ceasing to flow, depends on this, that as
soon as the weather is fine and mild, the transpiration
in plants goes on with greater rapidity, therefore
naturally the quantity ef the sap becomes less; on
the contrary, in cold weather the transpiration
is not considerable, and therefore the sap accu-
mulates.

On

PHYSIOLOGY. 289

On this account we find, that the roots of herbas
ceous plants which we collect for medicinal pur-
poses, are more efficacious in winter and*spring, than
in summer, when in full leaf and flower, because
then they have athe new sap by their young
radicles.

§ 278.

That plants emit oxygen in day-light, and in the
dark principally carbonic acid gas, has been already
mentioned, (§ 273). The reason of this, as the
latest discoveries in chemistry have shewn, we are
now to explain. | | |

Plants imbibe through the pores of the cutis,
(§ 274), atmospheric air, which consists of azote,
oxygen, and carbonic acid gas; the azote being the
greatest in quantity, the carbonic acid gas the least.
Experiments prove this phenomenon clearly. Plants
which were put in carbonic acid gas, soon decayed,
as well as when inclosed in azote and hydrogen gas,
with this difference only, that in the two last gases

they decayed slower. ‘The cause of their decay is
| certainly no other, but that they want the necessary
oxygen in the inclosed air, and their vessels theres
fore become relaxed.

From the ground, plants imbibe water and care
bonic acid gas, (§ 274), as well as oxygen. We
know, that the carbonic acid gas is specifically
heavier then the other gases, that it precipitates and
is absorbed by water, and that on this account it is
easily taken up by the radicles of plants. For this
very reason Sennebier alleges, that plants grow so

very

290 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

very rapidly after a thunder storm with rain, as this
last contains much carbonic acid gas. On this point,
however, the opinions of philosophers are very con-
tradictory, for many of them deny that a greater
quantity of carbonic acid gas exists in rain during a
thunder storm. That vegetables imbibe oxygen
from the ground, seems to be confirmed by the ob-
servation communicated to me by my often men-
tioned friend Mr Humboldt, in a letter dated May ist,
1798. ‘The following are his words: ‘If I took
‘¢ 400 parts of atmospheric air, of a known quality,
‘*¢ for instance, 28 parts of oxygen, and brought
“‘ it im contact with mould, (4umus), or loam;
‘¢ from 50 to 70 parts disappeared, but scareely 3
«¢ or 5 parts of carbonic acid were given out, and
«¢ the rest of the inclosed air contained hardly 12
‘¢ or 14 parts of oxygen. ‘The ground therefore
‘¢ imbibes oxygen in a solid form from the atmo-
<¢ sphere. ‘The oxygen combines, I believe, with
«© the hydrogen and carbon of the humus, and the
“¢ product is an oxyd of hydrogen and carbon,
*¢ which has not yet formed water or carbonic acid.
«¢ This light compound is easily taken up by the
‘¢ vegetable fibre.””? From this we might be able to
explain, why oxygen, as we shall find presently, is
indispensably necessary for the vegetable fibre and
stimulates it to growth, (§ 251). Hence plants
erow better in newly dug garden earth; and trees
planted in holes, which were during the whole win-
ter exposed to the influence of the open air, thrive
better than when planted in long used earth, or in
eround covered with turf,

n

La)

The

PHYSIOLOGY. 291

The rays of the sun conjoined with the vital power
of plants promote the decomposition of the water in
its constituent parts, hydrogen and oxygen. The
oxygen stimulates the air vessels, and even by sti-
mulating the vegetable fibre in general, quickens all
the secreting processes. It combines besides with
caloric, and escapes in a gaseous form through
the pores of the plant. ‘The imbibed atmospherical
air is, through the increased stimulus of the vital
power, freed from its carbonic acid and azotic gas.
In the same manner the carbonic acid gas of the
water, which was taken up by the roots, and which,
éven perhaps itself is imbibed by them in its gaseous
form from the ground, becomes fixed. ‘These mate
ters now enter, according to the assimilating power
which is inherent in each plant, and which appears
to be a modification of the vital power itself, in dif-
ferent new combinations and in different propor-
tions, forming oils, resins and gums, and all the rest
of the above enumerated (§ 230), vegetable princi-
ples.

In darkness, however, when the light no longer
rouses the vital power to the decomposition of the
water, the oxygen contained in the atmosphere
again forms new and different combinations with
the other principles. It cannot now stimulate the
vessels, and therefore a small quantity of gas is
emitted by the plant. The quantity of the carbonic
acid gas cannot become fixed, and therefore again
parts with the plant as such. Mi

The light of the sun effects, even in aquatic plants,
at the bottom of rivers and brooks, the decomposi-

T 2 tion

292 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

tion of water. Conferva rivu/aris, when exposed in
a glass vessel to the rays of the sun, constantly
evolves new shoots. ‘Trees likewise shew how be-
neficial for them the influence of light is, as they
all grow thicker and fuller of leaves towards the
south.

The same stimulus which the oxygen gas in sun-
shine offers to the vegetable fibre, likewise produces
in it the state of sleep. After constant application
of stimuli, relaxation must necessarily follow, of
which the consequence is, that in the evening the
leaves become folded up. For the very same rea-
son some plants fold and unfold their leaves at cer-
tain hours. Du Hamel’s experiment, mentioned
above, with the plant, which he put into a trunk,
might perhaps be explained in this way. The
leaves could not but open in the morning, after they
had during night imbibed moisture enough to resist
the new ule ; but how did it happen that they
shut again in the darkness of a certain hour, when
no light could effect the decomposition of water?
Du Hamel did not make the experiment with suffi-
cient accuracy, for he did not examine the state of
the air, in which the plant in the trunk was placed.
Had there been hydrogen gas in it, the experiment
could be easily explained, as this gas acts in the same
manner upon plants as light does.

The oxygen gas, if accumulated to a great degree,
makes leaves and all parts of vegetables pale and
even white. ~

Hence it is, that plants in the dark, when the
gas cannot be evolved by light, grow whitish.

Mr

PHYSIOLOGY. 293

Mr Humboldt found that the leaves of the Lepidium
sativum, in the faint glimmer of a lamp, which was
kept up for some days, retained their green colour.
I saw myself this singular and remarkable pheno-
menon.
Hydrogen gas likewise promotes the decomposi-
_ tion of water in vegetables. Sennebier and Ingen-
houss observed that plants, inclosed in hydrogen gas,
transpired day and night oxygen gas. Mr Hum-
boldt on the 14th February 1792 took a germinating
bulb of the Crocus vernus down to one of the cele-
brated mines of Freyberg, and planted it in the
ground. In its galleries the air was so much con-
taminated with hydrogen gas, that his candle went
out, and his lungs became sensibly affected. ‘The
germ of the bulb soon evolved its leaves and flowers.
Till the 17th day the leaves were green, the flowers
yellow, and the anthers even full of pollen; but on
this day the whole plant began to putrify. Several
plants shewed the same result. The hydrogen gas
cannot however be considered as a stimulus of vege-
tables, as in its pure state it kills plants, and only
when mixed with oxygen shews the above pheno-
mena. Plants therefore remain alive in it as long
only, as they can still exhale oxygen; when this
stops the plant is gone. .
Oxygen gas is therefore, as experience shews, as
exclusively necessary to the subsistence of plants as
of animals. Its stimulus of the vegetable fibre is
that which preserves the health of plants; and
therefore plants grow rapidly when they can ims
bibe oxygen gas from the ground, Seeds like-
T3 wise

294 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

wise germinate sooner when stimulated with this
gas. Mr Barton however discovered another great
stimulus of plants, on which philosophers should
make still further experiments. He found that in
water in which camphor was diffused, a decayed
twig rapidly recovered, which did not happen when
it was placed in common water. A decayed branch
of Liriodendron tulipifera and a withered’ flower of
the yellow Iris recovered in it and remained long
fresh. I myself tried this with a branch of Silene
pendula, the flowers of which were quite shrivelled ;
4m an hour’s time I found the petals again perfectly
expanded, as if just evolved. Is it the hydrogen of
the Camphor which stimulates the vegetable fibre to
such a degree, as to produce this phenomenon? or
is it a consequence of the composition of the cam-
phor, the carbon being mixed with the hydrogen in
such a proportion which alone can act as a stimulus
on plants? This remains to be determined.
Light likewise is a very powerful stimulus of the
vegetable fibre. Every body knows that hot-house
plants incline their stalks and leaves always towards
the windows. A plant which has been confined for
days in a dark room will, as soon as some light is
admitted, however small the aperture be through
which it passes, bend its stalks towards the light.
‘Who does not know, that the species of Lupinus,
especially Lupinus /ueus, turn in the open air their
leaves and stalks towards the sun, and follow its
course in so steady a manner, as to enable us to spe-
' ify the hour of the day from their direction ?
abe aly Barton

PHYSIOLOGY. 995

Barton found, that a solution of nitrat of potass
had just the opposite effect. A few grains of it
killed the Kalmia. Mr Brugmans, on the contrary,
asserts, that nitrat of potass is an excellent stimu-
lant to make vegetables grow. It is said that the
Dutch gardeners make bulbs of Hyacinths, Nar-
cissuses, and others, grow earlier by an addition of
nitre. ‘Tromsdorff likewise found, that a sprig of
the Mentha piperita became 378 grams heavier in a
solution of nitre, whereas another sprig in common
water, gained only 145 grains in weight.

There is no doubt, that the decomposition of the
water produces at the same time the peculiar tem-
perature of plants, (§ 240). But the manner in
which cold originates in them, has not yet been esta-
blished. Sennebier and Hassenfratz believe, that as
plants grow by decomposing the water, and com-
bining the oxygen and carbon; the oxygen which
thus becomes free, combines with the caloric of the
vegetable fibre, goes off in a gaseous form, and
produces the low temperature of plants. Mr Hum-
boldt thinks, that plants take up caloric from the
atmosphere, and with it give to the oxygen, which
the light has separated, its gaseous form. From this
he explains the: great coolness under the shadow of
trees.

That in the Fungi the process of inhalation and
the separation of gases follow other laws, is certain.
But we are so little acquainted with the nature of
these vegetables, that we have not been able to fix
those laws. Agaricus campestris and androsaceus con-

YT 4 stantly

296 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

stantly exhale oxygen gas, and perhaps most of them
do it. They seem, however, likewise to require the
stimulus of the oxygen of the atmosphere, as in-
closed in hydrogen and azotic gas most of them
decay rapidly. All plants, however, do not bear
the stimulus of light and oxygen equally well,
Each stimulus must be in proportion to the vege-
table fibre, and when too strong it acts in ie
contrary way, and destroys it. All subterrancous
plants, as was found by Scopoli and Humboldt,
decayed in atmospheric air. And in summer all the
species of Boletus, which grow in cellars, suffer
from the access of atmospheric air. Daily expe-
rience indeed proves this, as rooms and chambers
which are damp and mouldy, are soon freed from
this nuisance when air is freely admitted. So strong
is the stimulus of the little oxygen of the common
atmospheric air to those plants, that they suffer from

it and perish. |
Though a moderate degree of light and warmth
favours vegetation, too great a heat is uncommonly
noxious. .The burning rays of the sun debilitate
plants too much, and impair their irritability by the
relaxing power of heat. Mimosa pudica loses al-
most entirely its irritability by a long continued heat,
and the leaves of Hedysarum gyrans cease to move.
Grown up leafy plants during sultry days resist the
rays of the sun, though entirely exposed to them,
better than young germinating plants, In the
shade, and in milder light, plants germinate most
successfully. Thus nature has carefully provided
for the small delicate plants, which grow in the
shadow

PHYSIOLOGY, 99”

shadow of the larger ones. Every gardener and
forester knows this, and he can only hope for suc-
cess in his art, by attending to this provision of na-
tune *.

§ 279,

What vegetables imbibe from the atmosphere is
not inconsiderable. All succulent plants grow in
dry places, and in general the most succulent plants
_ of the globe, are found in the most barren and arid
spots. ‘The Karro fields of the Cape of Good Hope, -
where it rains a few weeks only in winter, but is
hot and dry during summer, are adorned with num-
berless succulent plants, which can imbibe nothing
from the ground, but are always full of juice, and
grow weil. Can those plants receive their food from
any other source but the atmosphere? We find even
that they suffer in our gardens from moisture, and
soon become rotten, whereas they grow well, when
little or not at all supplied with water.

Rain, besides the above mentioned use, to moisten
the ground, furnishes plants with water for decom-
position and keeps their pores open, and fit for the
transpiration of gases. In very dry weather, we
will find with a microscope most of the pores filled
with dust. If the drought continues long, and the
dust is accumulated, then the leaves fade away, be-
cause they can no longer perform their offices. A
species of maple, the Acer platanoides, suffers most

* Opium is said to affect the irritability of plants materially,
pay even to destroy it entirely. ;

9 : and

298 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

and soonest from drought, and I have seen its leaves
on this account often drop off very early.

That plants imbibe the moisture of the atmo-
sphere and rain, is proved by a very simple ex-
periment made by Bonnet. He placed a leaf of the
white mulberry-tree, Morus a/ba, with its upper sur-
face upon water, and it remained six days fresh and
green. Another leaf of the same tree, laid with its
under surface upon water, remained six months fresh.
This I think shews, that plants rapidly imbibe by
the under surface of their leaves the dew of the
night and the moisture of the atmosphere.

This office is performed by hairs or pubescent
points, which are on the surfaces of plants. The
under surface is therefore never quite without them,
and in many plants this hair is a hollow tube con-
structed for that purpose. When leaves have no such
_ pubescence, small apertures are found in their place.

§ 280.

Carbon and hydrogen are the stibstances of which
the food of plants chiefly consists, and they theretore
form the two chief constituent parts of vegetables.
By various organs and glandular bodies they are,
according to the power of assimilation, combined
with other substances, and changed in form and ap-
pearance, so that different parts have likewise a quite
different smell or taste from others. The roots, for
instance, of Mimosa ni/otica, smell like gum asa-
foetida; the sap of the stem is of a very sour,
astringent taste, the well known gum arabic exudes
from it, and the flowers possess a very sweet smell.
, In

PHYSIOLOGY. 9299

fn this respect, therefore, plants likewise resemble
animals, as in the animal, juices are secreted of very
different properties, taste and smell. In both king-
doms, however, the manner in which this is done
has not yet been explained by physiologists. That
the secretion and assimilation of the different fluids
depends on the vital power is certain, but whether
the attraction of the minute particles, or their mere
form and shape deserve most attention, is not yet
known. In the old vessels the irritability is less
than in young ones, in the last therefore more earthy
particles are deposited, the sap is sooner concreted,
and, as they grow in years, they become harder and
harder. Hence it is that these inner vascular circles
grow more dense, and form the wood (§ 261).
‘Those trees i which most carbon is fixed, ac-
quire a harder wood, and will therefore grow slower
than others. Some species of beech, Carpinus be-
tulus, and Fagus sylvatica; the oak tree, Quercus
robur and pedunculata; the Pinus cedrus, Adansonia
digitata, and other trees, will serve as instances. But
even here we have some exceptions ; I will only men-
tion the Robinia pseudacacia, which fixes a great deal
of carbon, and in a short time has very hard wood.
Each organized body, whether animal or plant,
has been endowed by nature with a peculiar degree
of vital power, which we cannot estimate, and its
organization is such, that by an equal supply of
food, each makes different combinations, depending

on this unknown power.
{In a plant, therefore, vegetation goes on according
to the modifications of the vital power, in the fol-
Jowing

300 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

lowing manner: The root takes up moisture and a
small quantity of gas from the ground, and carries
them, properly digested, to the stem. ‘This, as long
as green, mhales air and particles dissolved in it, and
variously prepares it in its vessels. - The leaves im-
bibe air and moisture, and again transpire gaseous
fluids and moisture, and carry what. they have pre-
pared from those principles to the young bud, or
the evolving part of the plant, as its food. That
buds are nourished by means of the leaves needs
no further proof than that in tender twigs, if we
take off the leaves at the time when they ought to
nourish the buds, these last cease to grow and to
unfold themselves. If the leaves are taken off from
branches which are already ligneous, they may be
restored by the accumulated quantity of at in the
cellular texture.

The sap of plants we know, (§ 237), has some
likeness to the blood of animals. Plants collect a
great quantity of it, to be provided against all pos-
sible accidents. Bulbs take up much sap, and with
it form, at the time of flowering, all necessary parts.
Du Hamel with Grew calls the sap of plants cambium.
He could perceive no connexion betwixt the wood
and the bark of a willow-tree, but found there a
fluid, which became in the open air gelatinous and
tenacious. He deprived a cherry-tree the whole
length of its stem of the bark, when it was in full
blossom, and covered it with a thick layer of straw ;
the tree bore no fruit, lost many of its leaves, and
even some boughs. ‘The next year it had not yet
recovered, but in the third a new bark was formed

from

PHYSIOLOGY. 301

from the sap or cambium. ‘This sap itis, there-
fore, which causes the formation of the vessels
and their fascicles. It is most plentiful where the
youngest layers of vessels in the stem lie, that is
in the inner bark. The wood which was formed
from the outer bark becoming hard, has the sap
not in so great a quantity. ‘The vessels of the wood
are in general less active, they carry therefore less
fluids, and those but slowly. The inner bark, on
the contrary, which, possesses still young and active.
vessels, is the only part in the plant possessed
of life, it can therefore make with its air vessels
the most use of the sap. Ii then the inner bark is
injured or wounded in a ligneous plant, so that the
air has free access to it, the plant dies. ‘The extre-
mities ‘of the vessels in the mner bark shrink to-
gether, and the sap alone has no power, it dries up
entirely. In hard winters those trees have often
been seen to die, which had their inner bark frozen,
where those, whose pith and wood only were affected
by the frost, not the inner bark, grew as formerly.
From this observation we are entitled to conclude,
that the life and duration of a tree or shrub, depends
entirely on the health and activity of the inner bark.

Every tree or shrub with us sends forth annually
alarge and a small shoot. ‘The first and principal
shoot appears in spring, the last on the contrary,
about St John’s day, near the longest day in June.
Hence the first has been styled the spring shoot, the
other the. St John’s shoot. Under the equator and
the tropics, each shoot is, in most plants of equal.
size, and the growth of plants for this reason in the
| : torrid

302 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

torrid zone is very great. ‘The second, or St John’s
shoot is, properly speaking, only a continuation of
the first. ‘The first shoot is pushed forward by the
old stock of sap which had been collected, the se«
cond, by the sap which is still forming during fa-
vourable weather. |

§ 281.

The green colour with which all the vegetable
creation is invested, is a most cheerful sight, and it
is but natural to suppose, that the investigation of its
cause has always and long ago attracted the atten-
tion of philosophers, and given rise to many hypo-
theses. When phlogiston still had a number of ad-
herents, the explanation of the green colour was
very easy, it was considered as an effect of this prin-
ciple. Since, however, the idea of its existence has
been given up, different ways of explaining the na-
ture of this green colour have been devised. We
shall not at present enumerate them all, but merely
notice the opinions and observations of late philoso-
phers. Berthollet says, that the green of plants
does not consist of blue and yellow, as the prism
does not separate their green, like that of other
bodies, into yellow and blue rays.

After extracting with alcohol the green colour
from the leaves, and exposing this mixture to the
sun or atmosphere, the green colour disappears en-
tirely. The oxygen of the atmosphere combines
with the mixture, and banishes the colour. If a
solution of ammonia, which consists of hydrogen
and azote, be dropped into it, the oxygen parts with

the

PHYSIOLOGY. 303

the mixture, and the green colour is restored to it.
Almost all known observations on this point prove,
that leaves, which have parted with their oxygen by
means of light, are green, but get a pale or whitish
colour where the oxygen is accumulated. Chemists
now mostly assign as a cause of the green colour of
plants, the particular proportion in which the hydro-
gen and carbon are mixed.

6 282.

The dark colour of the bark im woody plants is,
according to Berthollet’s observations, produced by
the oxygen of the atmosphere. Mr Humboldt re-
peated his experiments, and found that wood, when
inclosed in oxygen gas, became black in two or
three days, and the gas was mixed with carbon. It
appears from this, that the oxygen of the atmosphere
combines with the hydrogen of the vegetable fibre,
and sets the carbon free, which shows its particular
black colour.

§ 283.

The duration of the leaves of plants varies very
much. Most of them in warm climates remain from
‘ three to six years on the stem. A few in colder
climates, and only those which have a tenacious
sap, as Llex aquifolium and Viscum album, or such,
which have sap of a resinous nature, as all the
pine-tribe trees, retain their leaves during winter.
All other plants of the colder climates drop their
leaves inautumn. ‘This happens in many different

ways. Some leaves shrink gradually together, fall off,

3 or

304 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

or remain on the stem ina dry state till spring; others
fall off when still green, and in the still milder days
of autumn. In quite a different manner the Robi-
nia pseudacacia parts with its leaves. The pinnate
leaves of this tree first drop all the pinnule, and
at last, after them the petiole to which they adhered
drops off.

Various reasons have been given by authors,
why plants lose their leaves in autumn, and we
shall now consider their various opinions on the
subject.

Du Hamel formed two hypotheses. He assumed;
in the first place, a herbaceous part in the petiole,
at the spot where its notch is, which in cold autum-
nal nights becomes injured, and Boss the falling
off of the leaves.

He abandoned however this opimion, because he
saw leaves drop off in warm autumnal days, without
any preceding cold, and then produced the following
explanation. ‘The moisture, which is conveyed to
the plant by its roots, favours the growth of the
petiole, the great transpiration of the leaves renders
it at last quite dry, and therefore the leaves fall off,
because the petiole has lost all its sap. |

Mr Mustel thought that the leaves transpire less.
during autumn. Hence the sap is accumulated in
them, which produces a transverse fissure at their
basis. The leaves, therefore, become separated from
the petiole, and drop off.

Vrolick believes that leaves possess a peculiar life,
in which various periods may be distinctly marked.

Their life, however, depends entirely on the life of
: the

\

PHYSIOLOGY. — 808

tiie plant. When they fall off, they have come to
their greatest age, and the plant can exist for some
time without them. ‘The dead leaves separate from
the living part, like dead Sa in the animal eco-
nomy fie sound ones.

Were the opinions of Du Hamel and Mustel
founded in truth, the leaves would never fall off in
warm climates. But there are in the East Indies
some trees which, at the rainy season, drop all their
leaves, and like our’ trees, are pertectly leafless.
Mr Thunberg likewise saw at Java an oak tree
which lost its leaves at the Same time as in Europe.
Theré must therefore exist another cause of this
phenomenon. Vrolick’s opinion is just, and Ber
fectly corresponds with all observations.

The true cause of the falling off of the leaves is
this : During the summer, the vessels of the petiole
become gradually ligneous, as the sap is conveyed
to them in greater quantity, and the whole frame of
the leaves gets a more ligneous consistence. The
sap must In consequence stagnate, and at last the
commiunicating substances between the stem and the
petiole are completely dried up andcrack. ‘Thewound
which the stem thus reveives cicatrizes before the
petiole separates. The connexion now interrupted
between the leaf and the stem, and their: vessels,
causes the petiole, by which they are connected, to
separate entirely, and thus, in calm serene weather
especially, the leaves unavoidably fall off. Be-
sides, the rays of the sun still favour the last de-
composition of the water, but the reducent vessels
xannot convey the small quantity of moisture to the

i) knot

306 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

knot of the petiole. Now, though this quantity of
sap is very inconsiderable, yet its motion naturally
will cause some sort of concussion, which perhaps
is alone sufficient to make the leaves finally fall off.

In the oak tree the leaves cannot fall off in au-
tumn, as the vascular fibre of this tree is very tough,
and on this account the connexion between the knot
of the petiole and the stem is not broken. In the
Robinia pseudacacia the small and tender petioles of
its leaves first get closed up by the sap, and separate
of course earlier from the common petiole, which is
still succulent enough to remain a short time, but
soon, as without the leaves it cannot subsist, has the
same fate. It depends therefore entirely on the na-
ture of the leaf, how long it is to remain on the
stem, not on the weather. Besides, the natural or-
ganization must be attended to, as it has a powerful
influence.

§ 284.

The growth of the plant ends with the evolution
of the flower. When a plant has acquired a certain
degree of firmness, (which, as they are so mult-
farious, does not happen in each at the same time,
or at the same age), it then becomes capable of pro-
pagating its own species, and that part which we
know under the name of the flower, is now formed.
Its beginning, or the quickly expected final evolu-
tion, in herbaceous plants, may generally be observed
from the circumstance, that the minute scaly leaves
erow gradually less, till the smaller and more deli-
cate parts of the flower are at last unfolded. Goethe

°
1S

PHYSIOLOGY... 30F

is therefore not quite mistaken, when he compares
the growth of plants to a contraction and expansion ;
an idea which Wolf already has endeavoured to prove.

§ 285.

The flower is likewise, as all the other parts of
plants, formed from air vessels, which, as soon as
the first rude sketch, as it were, of the flower exists,
are already observable. Linné’s opinion with re-
gard to the formation of the flower, is quite erro-
neous. He considered the pith of a plant, which
he believed to be of equal importance with the spi-
nal marrow of animals, as the sole formative organ.
in the whole vegetable kingdom. Vegetation in ge-
neral, according to his opinion, went on by means
of the pith. The seed itself was a small piece of
pith, which separated from the whole, on purpose
to go through the same revolutions as the old plant
had done. But he proceeded still further, and
ascribed to each part of a plant a certain peculiar
power in forming one part of the flower. The calyx
was formed by the bark, the corolla by the inner
bark; the stamens were formed by the wood, and
the pistils by the pith. He carried this hypothesis
still further, by asserting, that in ligneous plants
each branch required five years for the final evolu-
tion of the flower, and that each year something was
added to the future flower. In the first year, for
instance, the scales, (sguamae), are formed, when the
branch is shooting out from the bud; in the second
year the calyx; the corolla in the third; in the
fourth the stamens; and in the fifth the whole, for

Wee the

308 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

the primary and successive formation of which, na:

ture took all that time, is finished. :
Linné may be right so far, that plants require a
certain time to blossom; that in them previously a
great quantity of sap, which has been carefully di-
pested, to become fit for the formation of those im-
portant organs, on which all the propagation of the
species depend, must be laid up; but that every
year the rudiments of one part only, and of no
other, are produced, is certainly not to be proved.
As little can we suppose, that the pith alone 1s the
only formative part in plants. We have seen al-
ready its use and its offices, (§ 268), and we know
that it may be wanted, which is contrary to the old
opinion. But that this pith, the bark, the wood, &c.
should each form a peculiar part of the plant, is so
much against common experience, that it is hardly
necessary to reiute it. We find in the springing
flower, elongations of air vessels, but we never see
elongations from each particular part, one forming
the future calyx, another the corolla, and so forth.
For instance, inthe common sun fiower, (Helianthus
annuus), where in an immense large receptacle, nu-
merous small flowers are placed, how should thove
elongations be able to unfold themselves into florets
Seo the bark, inner bark, &c. through such a re-
ceptacle? There would arise a confusion amongst
those small parts which is never met with. How
should, besides, the stamina be formed in herbs,
which are not ligneous, or the pistil, in. plants which
have no pith? Every one may thus easily conceive,
that all those opinions are mere hypotheses, which
may

PHYSIOLOGY, 5 309

may be refuted, even without the aid of anatomical
dissection. ‘

The flower does not always appear in the angles
of the leaves or at the extremities of the stems, but
in some plants it pushes forth in very uncommon
places.

Rohria petioliflora has its flowers fixed to the pe-
tiole. ‘The same we see in Salsola altissima, and
some other plants. In most species of the genus
Ruscus, the flower is attached to the middle of the
leaves. It is seen on. the margins of the leaves, in
most species of Phyllanthus, Xylophylla, Polycardia,
and one species of Ruscus, R. androgynus. On
branches which are leafless appear the flowers of
Cynometra ramiflora; Ceratonia Siligua; Averrhoa
Bilimbi, and Carambola ;. Boehmeria ramiflora, and
other plants. Most remarkable is the manner in
which_ the flower is placed in a tree of the East In-
dies, called Cynometra caulifiora. ‘This very leafy
tree has no flowers, but at the foot of its stem; its
leafy top never produces any,

§ 286.

The flower, we know, (§ 66), consists of calyx,
corolla, nectaria, stamens, and pistil.

The calyx and corolla are, with regard to the
structure and distribution of their vessels, entirely
like the leaves. ‘The calyx, when green, as well as
the leaves, transpires oxygen gas in sunshine; but
no transpiration takes place when it has any other
colour, Both calyx and corolla imbibe the neces-

U 3 sary

310 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETE.
sary food from the atmosphere, and convey it to the
receptacle to which the flower is attached.

The nectaries, (§ 81), if not composed only of
elands, agree in their structure with the corolla.

§ 287.

‘The stamens, (§ 86—-88), consist of the filament
and anther. They are likewise called the male organs
of fructification. The filament, in the distribution of
of its vessels, resembles either the herbaceous stem,
or the leaves, according to the variety of its shape,
which differs very much, but in each plant com-
monly bears a peculiar but constant character. The '
anthers are formed of a thin, but vascular mem-
brane, filled with pollen.

“The pollen itself occurs under a variety of forms,
which can only be seen with a microscope. Messrs.
Jussieu, Du Hamel, Needham, Gleichen, and others,
found, when viewing the pollen with a high magni-
fying microscope, that its globules, when brought
in contact with water, burst with a degree of violence
and emitted a gelatinous mass. Koelreuter, on the
contrary, assures us, that ripe pollen does not burst
so suddenly when wetted, but slowly emits through
its pores, or if provided with small prickles, through
those, an oily fluid, which on the surface of water
forms a distinct shining pellicle. He says further,
that each single globule of the pollen consists of two
membranes; anexternal one, which is thick, elas-
tic, cartilaginous, and full of very delicate vessels,
which last are said to contain the pores which emit

| the

PHYSIOLOGY. 311

the oily liquid, and secondly an internal very fine
membrane ‘The internal surface is lined with very
tender, elastic, cellular texture, which contains the
oily fluid itself. Hedwig, however, aiter his latest
researches, does not agree with Koelreuter. ‘This
great philosopher tells us, that each globule of the
pollen consists of one vascular membrane only, filled
in its mterior with a gelatinous fluid, but has no
cellular texture whatever. And, according to him,
the pollen emits this fluid at once; it does not, as
Koelreuter believed, ooze out through pores. Hed-
wig examined that portion of pollen, which had at
the female stigma performed its functions, and he
found his prior observation confirmed. Even the
stamens of the mosses are, according to him, only
globules of pollen acting as the others. Hedwig
finds a great similarity between the pollen and the
semen of animals, only, that as well as in the animal
kingdom, it diifers in consistence in different species.
All observations indeed coincide in this, that the
fluid which is contained in the pollen, is but a mere
gelatinous fluid, which, however, cannot easily be
mixed with water. This however is likewise proved
by experience, that, though not an oil itself, it con-
tains a considerable quantity of oil, for an oil may
be obtained from it by pressure ; it takes fire when
thrown into a flame, and finally, bees prepare their
wax from it. It does not however follow, that the
whole is oily, for an almond cannot be called merely
an oily substance because oil may be obtained from
it, it contains this oil in a gelatinous mass.

U4 - A more

512 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

A inore important question, what constitutes the
impregnating power of the pollen, or on what does
it depend? remains still unanswered. Is it a subtile
oily vapour, or a subtile volatile aura? or is it,
according to others, electricity, or any other power?
Stil we are here in the dark*.

€ 288.

The female organs of fructification are the pistil,
(§ 91-94), which consists of the germen, the style,
and the stigma. The germen varies in its shape
and structure in various plants. It is composed of
all those vessels which we noticed in the rest of the
plant, their direction and distribution only differing
in each. ‘The seeds, if the germen itself does not
become a seed, lie in it, and are connected with it
by the navel-string, (§ 114). In its interior it con-
tains aclear fluid, in which nothing particular can
be found. When the germen itself becomes the seed,
the navel-string is very short. ‘The internal struc-
ture of such a germen is the same, as that of the
seed lying in it.

* This leads me to mention a remarkable electrical pheno-
menon, in some deep red, or orange- -yellow tinged flowers,
which Linné’s daughter first discovered. She repeatedly ob-
served, in a dark evening, the atmosphere being calm and
warm, a sparkling round the flowers of the Tropeolum majus.
The same was afterwards observed by others in other plants.
The Dictamnus a/bus affords another phenomenon. The very
volatile fine oil, which in hot weather exudes from its flowers,
gan be kindled by a candle, and gives out a light blue flame.

The

PHYSIOLOGY. | 313

"The style, (§ 93), appears under a great variety
of shapes. - All the known vegetable vessels compose
it, and it has hollow tubes, which at the top are by
a tender cellular texture fixed to the germen and the
navel-string.

Hedwig in his microscopical researches, found in the
species of gourd, (cucurbita), and its kindred plants,
near the stigma, hollow channeis, in which he de.
tected a firm, yellow, gelatinous body, which in the
gourd was quadrangular, ran through the whole
extent of the style, and ended in the navel-string of
the seed. It appeared solid, and incapable of carry-
ing any fluid.» But as no doubt it has some office in
the fecundation of the pollen, either as a conductor
or as a conveying medium, he calls it conductor fruc-
tijicationis. Its use, however, 1s not yet pertectly
understood, and it is even not yet precisely as-
certained, whether other plants have it, or if a
different organization in other plants, answers the
same purpose.

The stigma consists of hollow channels, the struc-
ture of which can be accurately viewed with the mi-
croscope only. ‘Those channels or tubes: constitute
the stigma. What the Terminology calls stigma,
(§ 94), is not always the real stigma, a very small
part of it only deserves this name; at other times,
on the contrary, the whole style is stigma.

The pappus, which is met with in compound
flowers, (§ 72), and which exists completely form-
ed in the ripe seeds, is certainly not to be consider-
ed, with Rafn, as a mere unorganic lifeless fibre.
te me it appears to consist of large elongations of

'

the

314 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

the exhalant vessels, which seem to contribute a
great deal to the condensation and proper prepara-
tion of the sap. They indeed grow themselves at
the very period, they perform these functions. When
therefore the seed has attained its proper size, the
vessels of the pappus become plugged up, and it re-
mains dry upon the seed.

§ 289.

The stigma, now in its state of puberty, or when
fit for impregnation, becomes covered with a fluid,
which Koelreuter likewise considers as oily, but of
the nature of which we know in fact very little.
The period when the stigma is moist and the an-
thers burst, is the period of impregnation. This
operation, however, is in plants performed in so
very striking a manner, that we must be astonished,
when we find how truly wonderfully nature has pro-
vided for all this. Most flowers are hermaphro-
dite, or such as have both male and female organs
of generation, and one would from this circum-
stance be led to believe, that in such flowers ime
pregnation would be immediately completed; but
it happens otherwise.

Mr Sprengel has made numerous observations
and experiments on this point, most of which are
highly important. He discovered two principal
ways in which seeds are impregnated, to wit, Dicho-
samy, (Dichogamia), and Homogamy, (£lomogamia).
He calls it Dichogamy, when in a hermaphrodite
flower one organ of generation is first evolved, and

after it has lost its fecundating power, another ge-
nerative

PHYSIOLOGY. O18

nerative organ is formed. ‘This is again of a two-
fold kind. Either the male parts are formed per-
fectly, before the female parts unfold themselves,
which he calls Dichogamia androgyna; or it is the
reverse, the female parts being first formed. ‘This he
styles Dichogamia gynandra. Homogamy is, when
both parts of generation are formed in a herma-
phrodite flower, exactly at the same period.

Now, in a hermaphrodite flower, when Dicho-
gamy takes place, impregnation cannot naturally
happen without intermediate means, by which both
organs of generation may be brought near each
other. Linné thought that the wind performed this,
but there are few plants where wind could do it, as
most flowers have such a shape as would rather im-
pede the access of the wind than favour it. Koel-
reuter first pointed out that many insects serve this
purpose, and Mr Sprengel had fortunately leisure
and patience enough to look at, and to witness the
manner, in which insects proceed in completing the
impregnation of plants.

He found that various species of bees, and other
flying insects, perform this important office; and
he even observed, that some flowers had their. pe-
culiar imsects, which alone visited it. His obser-
vations on this subject are indeed very numerous.
Those insects, it is true, do not visit the flower on
purpose to impregnate it, they only seek after the
sweet juice which exudes from it. Their hairy body
becomes covered with the pollen, and, whenever they
visit another flower of the same species, the pollen
as rubbed against the stigma, and impregnation is

4 the

516 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

the consequence. And every insect that even doeg
not visit one sort of flower alone, but many indiscri-
minately, will, during a whole day, remain with that
species on which it first fixed in the morning, and
not touch another, provided there be enough of the
first species. ;

Those flowers alone which secrete a sweet juice,
are visted by insects. Several of these flowers have -
one or more coloured spots, which Mr Sprengel
calls Maculae indicantes, as they always indicate that
a plant possesses honey, and, as he believes, make
the insect more attentive. In hairy flowers the hair
is always placed so as to prevent the rain from drop-
ping in, and not to allow the insect to enter the
flower at any place whatever, on purpose that it
may be obliged to make its way across the stamens.
The filiform and leaf-like appendages, which we
enumerated amongst the parts of flowers, (§ 84),
and which defend the honey, serve the same purpose.
But it would be needless to give a more detailed
account of the manner in which insects do this, as
we can see it better with our own eyes, if the least
acquainted with the structure of flowers. If we
only look at the Iris germanica, at many flowers of
the class Didynamia, at the Symphytum officinale,
and many other plants, we will soon find ample
satisfaction. One of the most singular ways of
the fecundation of plants through insects, we have
in the Aristolochia Clematitis. Fig. 271 represents
this flower on a small scale; it has a linguiform
corol, which at its inferior part is spherical, to-

wards the top it becomes long and tubular, and its
4 margins, —

PHYSIOLOGY. 317

thargins end ina flat and spear-pointed extremity.
The pistil is placed in the round cavity of the corol,
the germen of which is surrounded by six anthers,
which are shorter than the germen itself. The
-germen has no style, but is provided with a hexa-
gonal stigma, which is very shallow, and on its
upper surface has imbibing pores. ‘The anthers
cannot empty the pollen upon the stigma, as the
flower stands always straight upright during the
period of flowering. ‘The pollen therefore must ne-
cessarily fall to the bottom of the flower without
being used, if no insects come near the flower.
And indeed if it be tried, and all insects kept from
the flower by a thin, but firmly closed piece of
yauze, no seeds will be formed. It happens indeed
not unfrequently, that as it is a particular insect
which impregnates the flowers, when it is want-
ing or not able to find the flower, this last withers
without having a single seed. ‘This insect is the
Tipula pennicornis. The round bottom of the flower
is, in its interior, quite smooth, but the tubular
extremity is lined with dense hair, every one of
which is turned towards the interior, so as to form
a kind of funnel, through which the insect may
very easily enter ; but can with great difficulty only
return, and is obliged to remain in the cavity.) Um
easy to be confined in so small a space, it creeps con-
stantly to and fro, and so deposits the pollen on the
stigma. After this is done, the flower sinks, the
hair, which obstructed the passage, shrinks and ad-
heres closely to the sides of the flower; by which
means the insect gets free. Who but must admire

the

318 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC:

the wise provision of nature in fecundating this
seemingly trifling flower! Other instances of this
kind could be mentioned. The dichogamic plants
can be in no other way fecundated than by insects.
Many flowers blossom in succession on one plant,
and the restless insect, which flies from one flower
to another, carries the pollen to them all. Epilo-
bium angustifolium may serve as an instance of male
Dichogamy, and Euphorbia Cyparissias, as an in-
stance of female Dichogamy. Homogamic flowers,
that is, such flowers as have their male and female
organs of generation formed at the same time, are
mostly impregnated by themselves. Several, how-
ever, are visited by insects, which complete what
perhaps was not completed in the usual way, or
what rain, wind, or unfavourable weather inter-
rupted at the proper period.

In these flowers, the following arrangement is
made: When the stamens are larger than the
pistil, the flower stands either upright, and the sta-
mens incline themselves over the pistil; or it lies
horizontally, and the stamens curve themselves
archways towards the style, so as to become of
the same length with the pistil. Of the first kind
the Parnassia palustris is an instance. In it the
stamens, five in number, recline all over the pistil
in the following order: First, one of the stamens
places itself across the stigma, lets its pollen go,
then rises up and resumes its former position. In
the mean time the second is already following in
the same manner, and as soon as the first rises from
the stigma, the other covers it; the third succeeds

like

PHYSIOLOGY. 319

like the two first, but as soon as it has risen, the
two last come both at once. ‘To the second kind
belong the horse chesnut, (Aesculus Hippocastanum),
and others.

But if in homogamic flowers the stamens are
shorter than the pistil, the flower 1s pendulous, so
that the pollen, when falling off, may be enabled
to perform its functions. Rarely have such flowers
an oblique or horizontal position, and in this case
the style turns backwards, to reach the stamens.
Some pendulous flowers, however, can only be fe-
cundated by insects, as their stigma is so situated
that the pollen does not directly fall upon it; but
then these flowers have, as mentioned before, hair
or other processes, which oblige the insects to
enter them along the stigma; so that, when they
return or visit the flower repeatedly, they must rub
the pollen against the stigma.

Such plants, as on one stem have both female
and male flowers, are mostly impregnated by insects
alone. Only those impregnate themselves, which
have no nectaries, or when the male flowers stand
close to the female flowers, as in some species of
gramina; Typha; Coix; Carex, and others. In
that case such flowers have their female flowers
situated lower than the male flowers, and their pe-
tals are very minutely or very deeply laciniated, so
that the pollen when falling, can reach them. ‘This
is the case, for instance, with the different species
of Pinus and similar trees. Here probably the wind
too is of some service. It disperses the pollen in
the air, so as often to involve the tree in a kind of

cloud.

320 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC;

cloud. The sulphur rain, as it has been called;
which falls sometimes in spring, after thunder storms,
is nothing else, but the pollen of the Pinus sy/vestris
carried about in the air by wind.

Such plants as have on one stem male flowers
only, on another female flowers alone, are always
provided with nectaries, and the male flowers are
larger by far than the female, to allow more readily
the insects to carry the pollen to their female
neighbours.

Vhe Valisneria spira4s, a water-plant of Italy, has
the different sexes in different flowers; but here the
male flower parts with the stem, and swims upon
the water, that the aquatic animals may the sooner
carry its pollen to the female plant. It is indeed a
veneral rule, that all those aquatic plants which do
not come under Linne’s 24th class, can in no other
way be impregnated but above the surface of the
water.

Many foreign plants flower with us, having dis-
linctly formed hermaphrodite flowers, but notwith-
standing bear no seeds. The climate, however, is
not always the cause of their batrenness, but the
want of insects, which nature destined in their na-
tive countries to fecundate their seeds, and which
we have not, along with the plants, received into
our gardens. One experiment will confirm the
truth of this observation: Vhe Abroma augusta
flowered for many years here, in Berlin, in a hot-
house, where no insects had access, without ever
bearing a single fruit. Vhe gardener tried the ex-

periment to put the pollen, by means of a hair-
brush,

PHYSIOLOGY. 391"

brush, upon the stigma of several flowers, and he
vot perfectly formed fruit, which again gave him
new plants. In many other cases this has been
done, which the limits of this work will not permit
us to mention. Might it not be adviseable for gar-
deners, who wish to have cherry-trees or other fruit-
trees bear very early in the season, when they often
get little or no fruit at all, to place a bee-hive
with bees in the hot-house, and at the same time, to
take care to let these busy insects get at as many
flowers as possible ?

§ 290.

_ Nature seems to have given so very high a de-
gree of irritability to some plants, merely to pro-
mote the business of generation. Berberis vulgaris
has very irritable stamens, for if they are bent only
a little, they instantly rebound back to the pistil. Dr
Smith, however, found that a few parts in them
only are possessed of this irritability. Cactus tuna
has likewise a great deal of irritability in its sta-
mens. If they are touched with a quill, they all
incline over the pistil. As soon, therefore, as in-
sects touch these irritable spots in those plants, the
irritability exerts itself, and impregnation takes
place. Many more plants have these kinds of sta-

mens, for imstance the whole family of Ascle-
pias, Sc.

The. elasticity of some stamens certainly alone
favours impregnation in some plants, for instance,
in Lopezia; Urtica; Parietaria ; Medicago ; Kalmia 5

and others. | |
x The

322 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC:

The style indeed of some flowers seems to possess »
much irritability, as it follows the stamens with its
stigma.

The closing and opening of some flowers called
their Vigiliae (§ 7), does not belong to this subject,
though it may occasionally contribute something to
the impregnation of flowers. It seems to depend
on an increased contractility, or on an accumu-
lation of the strong smelling transpirable matter.
On the first it certainly depends in those flowers
which, as it were, indicate rain, that is, shut them-
selves soon before rain falls. ‘Lhe fibre in the pe-
tals seems to act as a hygrometer, as in Calendula
pluvialts, hybrida; Bellis perennis, and the . like.
Something similar happens | in the Oenothera, though
it remains open during rain. Perhaps some flowers,
especially of the class Syngenesia, close in the even-
ing for the very same reason. ‘The Hesperis ¢ristis
and ‘some others, which open in the evening, and
diffuse their fragrant odours, unfold themselves at
night time, by reason of the accumulated perspir-
able matter. But how shall we account for the
Nymphaea alba opening in the forenoon, and clos-
ing again about four o’clock in the afternoon, and
then remaining till the next morning immersed in

water ?

§ 291.

Koelreuter examined, in a very laborious manner,
how many globules of pollen might be required to.
complete an impregnation, His chief discoveries
on this point are as follow:

All

PHYSIOLOGY. Bod

All the anthers of Hibiscus syriacus contained
4863 globules of pollen, 50 or 60 of which were
necessary to complete impregnation. But whenever
he took less than 50 globules, then not all the seeds
ripened, but those, which were formed, were perfect.
_ Ten globules were the least he could take in this
flower, as less would not suffice for it. The Mira-
bilis Jalappa had 293 globules of pollen in one flower,
Mirabilis Jongiflora 321. But in each of the two
plants 2 or 3 globules were sufficient for impreg-
nation. ‘The seed did not appear more perfect,
| though many more globules were put upon the
stigma.

To ascertain whether, in flowers with more than
one style, each ought to become impregnated sepa-
rately, Koelreuter im several of them cut all off but
one, and the fecundation was as successful as ever.
Even in flowers, in which the style was entirely sepa-
rated, fecundation took place through one of them.
These experiments shew, that the hollow tubes of
one style communicate with all the rest, and that more
styles and more pollen are formed, merely to ensure
their final determination. From this circumstance
philosophers have concluded, that the cellular tex-
ture of all germens fixed in the receptacle, must co-
here amongst each other.

§ 292.

The great and wonderful process of generation
has led various philosophers to form peculiar, and
often very singular hypotheses of their own, which
each has tried to establish by a number of arguments.

& 2 To

394 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

To give am accurate account of all of theni,
would be transgressing the bounds of our present
researches ; it will suffice to mention only the chief
of them. ‘Some of the oldest philosophers thought;
that an accidental commixtion of solid and liquid
parts was sufiicient to form, according to ¢tircum-
stances, animals or plants. This was called Gene-
ratio aequivoca. Others imagined, that the small ani-
mals which were observed in the semen, (animalcula
spermatica), go into the ovaries of the mother, and
thus form the future being. Others again, believed
that in the mother a rudiment of the future animal
pre-existed, to which the semen of the male im-
parted lite. ‘This theory was called the pre-forma-
tion system, or the Systema praeformationis, prede-
lineationis, or the theory of evolution. ‘Those
three appellations properly denoted three differ-
ent ideas; but in reality they all concur in this
one point, that all three suppose a pre-existence of
the future being in the mother. Lastly, philoso-
phers alleged, that the fecundating fluids both of
female and male become mixed together, and thus
give existence to the future animal. ‘This theory
was styled, Lpigenesis.

The generatio aequivoca, was suppesed in former
times chiefly to take place in insects, worms and
plants, but is now entirely abandoned by all ra-
tionalmen. Harvey’s principle is now well known,
omite vivum ex ovo, and we daily find this truth con-
firmed by new and bold observations, and the im-
portant conclusions of philosophers. I would in-
deed no longer rest with this old theory, did not

some

PHYSIOLOGY. JON Boras

some botanists explain the formation of Fungi, merely
by the fermentation of putrifying vegetable matter.
What led them to this, was their sudden rise, and
the places which some of them always occupy. But
there are likewise animals of the shortest duration,
and others which are found on certain peculiar spots
only, and no where else. Vo draw any conclu-
sions from such circumstances is rather improper.
And now, as the seeds and flowers of these plants
have been discovered, this idea will be altogether
abandoned. No organic body arises almost in any
other way but from ova, (§ 296), and the Generatio
-aequivoca therefore is a mere nothing. |
The theory of animalcula in the semen of ani-
mals being carried over to the ovarium of the mo-
ther, where the new animal is formed, has Leu-
wenhoeck for its author. Some therefore, in the ve-
getable kingdom, assumed pre-existing germs Or
corcles in the pollen, which in the mother’s ovaries
unfolded themselves into the future plant. A very
zealous supporter of this opinion was Mr Gleichen.
Some even went so far as to see, under the micro-
scope, small asses in-the semen of an ass, and small
lime trees in the pollen of a lime. ~Strange things
may be seen, if persons are disposed to see them.
- Koelreuter’s observations, of which immediately, at
once overthrow this doctrine. | |
- The system of pre-formation, which in former
times was much in vogue, is not, even by its most
zealous admirers, much insisted on in the vegetable
kingdom. Spallanzani, who in animals, by means
of tedious experiments, attempted to prove the pre-
Xx 3 existence

426 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

-existence of the animal, before the impregnation of
the ovum in the ovaries, sincerely confesses, that
there is mo. pre: “existence of plants like that in
animals.

Uhe Epigenesis, or generation by a commixtion of
the fluids given out both by male and female, is
what most physiologists now assume as the only
true theory of generation both in the animal and.
vegetable kingdoms. Koelreuter confirmed it
by numerous experiments, of which we shall men-
tion one only: He took of the genus Nicotiana,
the Nicotiana rustica and paniculata. The first he
deprived of «all its stamens, and fecundated its
pistil with pollen of the last species. | Nicotiana
rustica has egg-shaped leaves, and a short, greenish

yellow corol. Nicotiana paniculata, a stem half as.
long again as the former, and roundish, cordate
leaves, and much longer, yellowish green corols.
The bastard offspring of both, kept in all its parts
the middle betwixt the two species. He tried the
same with more plants, and the re sult accorded per-
fectly with the first.

Were we therefore to admit the animalcula se-
minalia, the hybrids could necessarily not have dif-
fered in their form from the male plant ; and, on the
other hand, were the evolution system founded in
nature, they would have the same form as the fe-
male plant. he hybrid, however, was a medium
between both, it therefore certainly adopted some
parts both from father and mother, and was formed
by Epigenesis. |

| § 293.

PHYSIOLOGY. 397

IS) 293.

Koelreuter, however, could only obtain. hybrids
by intermixing similar plants. Dissimilar plants
never produced them, even though, according to
our systems, they belonged to one genus. It ap-
pears that nature thus avoids unnatural mixtures.

The instance of mules not generating, as it was
once believed at least, induced many philosophers
to make it an axiom, that hybrids are barren. But
we now know a good many instances in Zoology of
hybrids being very productive, and even the in-
stance of mules does not prove any thing, as in
warm climates they are sometimes prolific.

Koelreuter likewise found hybrids of various spe-
cies of tobacco and some more plants to be sterile,
the pistil in them being very perfect, but the sta-
mens not completely formed. But there are now
several instances of hybrid plants which retain their
original form, and propagate themselves. I shall
only mention a few with their parents:

Sorbus hybrida. ‘TYhe mother was Sorbus aucuparia ;
the father, Crataesus ria.

Pyrus /ybrida. ‘The mother was Pvyrus ardutifolia;
the father, Sorbus aucuparia.

Rhamnus hybridus. ‘Vhe mother was Rhamnus a/.
pinus ; the father, Rhamnus A/aternus.

What mixtures do not the species of Pelargonium
produce in our gardens? All plants of the 21st,
22d, and 23d classes of Linné mostly generate pre-
lific hybrids. Linné wrote a particular treatise on.
, Pypeids, in which he attempted to explain the origin

x 4 ot

g28 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

of some particular plants; but unfortunately he has
given nothing but hypotheses, his observations not
according with experience.

Should it not, from the observations made with
regard to the hybrids of the animal and vegetable
world, be laid down as a rule, admitting some ex
ceptions, that all hybrids are productive, but that
some only want a warm climate, to unfold the male
semen! I do not attempt to establish this rule as
quite certain; I should be happy, on the contrary,
would philosophers consider this subject more ac-
curately, and attend more to the hybrids of different
climates, on purpose to settle the point.

But Koelreuter made some experiments, which
put the doctrine of LEpigenesis beyond all doubt.
{ shall only mention one of his observations as an
instance. He obtained, as we have seen, a hybrid
from Nicotiana rustica and paniculaia. Nicotiana rus-
tica was the female plant, paniculata the male. ‘The
hybrid, like all the others which he brought up, had
imperfect stamens, and kept the middle between the
two species. He afterwards impregnated this hybrid
with Nicotiana paniculata, and got plants, which
much more resembled the last. ‘This he continue
through several generations, till in this way, by due
perseverance, he actually changed the Nicotiana
rustica into the Nicotiana paniculata. By those and
other experiments, often repeated, and made in va-
rious ways and upon other plants, it seems clearly
established, that there is no pre-formation in plants.

According to the theory of Epigenesis then, the
fluids of the male and female ave mixed, and an off-
an a spring

PHYSIOLOGY. $29

spring is obtained from these two, which in form
and properties resembles both father and mother.

§ 294. |

But there have been philosophers, as well in for-
mer as at the present times, who in plants have
altogether denied the existence of sexes. Smiellie
seems to favour this opinion, because he repeat-
ed an experiment of Spallanzani’s, with a female
plant of hemp, which he kept remote from all
male plants, and notwithstanding obtained, though
in a small quantity, perfect seeds, and hence he de-
duces his arguments. But indeed such experiments
are too difficult to be free from error, and who can
assert, that he has not, even with the greatest atten-
tion, been deceived? Spallanzani placed his female
plant ina room, to which no insects could get, and,
for the greater security, likewise covered it. But
could he, before the first flower appeared, distinctly
enough distinguish the female plant of the hemp?
And could not avery small, minute insect escape
his eyes, and effect a fecundation? Besides, do we
not find on female plants sometimes a few male
flowers, which perhaps was here the case? The
few seeds which he got, prove, that a few single
parts were necessarily fecundated. But even sup-
posing that in hemp the female plant produces ripe
seeds without fecundation, can we draw any just
conclusion from this single plant to any other vege-
table? We have in the animal kingdom an instance
in the Aphis, am insect which, without the aid of a
male, propagates itself till autumn. But who would,

from

&
a

30 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

we

from this isolated observation, founded as it is in
truth, attempt to deny in all animals the existence
of a difference of sex ? Since Gleditsch first, in a bo-
tanic garden, impregnated the Chamaerops humilis,
which is a female plant, with pollen of the male
plant, which Koelreuter sent to him from Karls-
ruhe, and obtained ripe seeds and young plants,
which before never had been possible, thousands of
similar experiments have been made which put it
beyond doubt, that two sexes exist in plants. Every
person may indeed easily convince himself of the
fact, by repeating such experiments on the species
of melon and gourd, and everywhere in the vege-
table kingdom, he will find two distinct sexes.

G29 5e ,

Each seed, as we know, (§ 288), already exists
in the germen during the time of blooming, before
fecundation takes place, and contains a very clear
liquor, called by Malpighi the Chorion. With this,
most likely, the fecundating particle of the male
semen become mixed, and thus produce the em-
bryo of the new plant. Koelreuter, on the con-
trary, thinks that the moisture of the stigma; which
he, according to his favourite idea of an oily, im-
pregnating fluid of vegetables, supposes likewise to
be of the nature of oil, becomes mixed with the
fluid of the male, and that these two combined, are
conveyed into the seed. However, though this may
be true, many other changes take place in the seed —
sooner or later after fecundation. For in the neigh-

bourhood of the navel a smal! vesicle appears, filled
with

\ PHYSIOLOGY. | aot

with some liquid. ‘The first is called the sacculus
colliquamenti, and the liquor in it, the ammnios. ‘This
vesicle grows larger, absorbs the chorion, which at
last entirely disappears, and finally becomes the
membrana interna of the seed, (§ 114). The amnios
grows hard, and forms the cotyledons, (§ 114).
As‘soon as the vesicle shews itself, the embryo of
the future plant likewise appears gradually, which
is, properly speaking, the corcle, (/. c.). | It is
formed gradually, and becomes visible, in the sun-
flower, (Helianthus annuus), three days after im-
preenation; in the cucumber, (Cucumis sativus),
a week after; and in Colchicum autumnale, some
months after. It is soft in the beginning, but in
time becomes, like the vesicle which contains it, of
a better size and firmness. The vesicle does not
in all seeds increase in the same form, in.some It
grows larger in its whole circumference, in others
it grows longer towards one extremity, and the sides
aiterwards become extended.

§ 296.

Thus the seed comes to maturity, and when per-
fectly ripe, separates in different ways from its mos
ther plant, and begins a new life itself, passing
through all the scenes again, just now explained,
‘This is the common way in which plants are pro-
gagated. But we have plants, which do it in another
way besides evolving their seeds. At the stem, or
near the angles of the leaves, nature or even acci-
dents form sometimes knots, which become buds,
and separating spontaneously from the plant itself,

A send

Bok PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

send out roots and leaves, and form an entirely new
plant of the same species. Such plants are called,
viviparous plants, (vegetabilia vivipara). Several spe-
cies of garlic, (allium); the Lihum bulbiferum; Poa
bulbosa and other plants, shew this phenomenon spon-
taneously. The garden tulip, (Tulipa gesneriana),
exhibits this curious phenomenon by means of a
simple manoeuvre of art, if the flower is cut off,
before impregnation has taken place, and the stem
with the leaves be allowed to remain, provided it be
ina shaded spot. Several succulent plants, for in-
stance, Eucomis punctata, do it when treated in the
above manner. ‘hus gardeners produce a greater
number of young plants, by grafting and moculating
with cions, and by other similar processes. The
bud of a tree or shrub, when grafted into another
stock, will there be unfolded, and must indeed be
regarded as a different plant altogether. It is not
changed. in its nature, but grows as if placed in the
earth; the stem only serves to convey the imbibed
sap to it, which it must digest itself.

Agricola and Barnes, it appears, were more suc-
cessful in these operations, for they placed buds di-
rectly in earth, and produced perfect young plants.

S297.

The stem of ligneous plants, we were informed,
(§ 260), annually adds a new ring of vessels. ‘The
first and oldest of these circles begin to become lig-
neous on their sides. The wood has in general,
when young, a yellowish white colour, which, ac-

cording to the species of the plants, assumes a darker
3 hue

PHYSIOLOGY. 333

hue every year. The quick circulation of the sap
only takes place in the young vascular circles; in
the older ones the sap is carried along much slower,
‘and they have their irritability greatly diminished.
Life in every shrub or tree is seated only in the
youngest rings of these vessels, which we now know
under the name of the inner bark, (§ 280), and
the plant must die when this is wounded. ‘Thus if
a ligneous plant has performed its offices for a
number of years, then the mnermost ring begins
to be plugged up, and to become more and more
impervious. Whence its neighbours no longer ob-
tain any moisture from it. ‘They therefore begin to.
move their sap slower, and the youngest vascular
circle becomes gradually thinner and thinner. At
last the.sap stops likewise in the following ligneous
circles: the youngest vascular ring cannot form it-
_self completely; few buds are now unfolded; the
small number of leaves cannot prepare sufficient sap
for the whole, and the common certain lot of or-
ganized bodies, death, stops the machine entirely.

§ 298.

In herbaceous plants all the vessels of the stem
become dry and hard in one twelvemonth, and as
therefore they can no longer convey the sap, the
stem decays at the end of the year. ‘Their root
forms, as the stem of ligneous plants does, annually
a new vascular circle, and it dies itself at last, when
all those circles have become too ligneous. But
such herbs, the roots of which are annually renewed,
are of constant duration. ‘The old root dies, its

fibres

S64 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

fibres being entirely ligneous, but a new one aps
pears, and is in fact the young plant.

§ 299.

Herbs, however, whether they live one year only,
as the annual plants, or two years, as all biennial
plants, become so exhausted by the formation of the
flower and fruit, that the irritability of their vessels
becomes much impaired; they therefore become
quite ligneous, and their root and stem must de-
cay aiter its fruits are ripened. They may, however,
be preserved for several years, if their flowers,
when in the bud, be taken off. ‘The same happens
a~when their flowers are filled, in which case fecun-
dation does not take place and no fruit is formed.
These vessels, therefore, retain that arritability which
is necessary for their duration, and which would
have been lost by the wasting of their strength, and
their fibres become only slowly hgneous.

§ 300.

This natural death, however, does not come upon
all plants in the same manner. It is indeed of a
double kind. In most plants death ensues as in large
animals, by induration of the vegetable fibre. But
in soft Fungi and the species of Boletus it happens
quite the contrary way. These plants imbibe much
moisture, which increases when they become older.
In them no part becomes ligneous, but they die in
a soft state, from superabundance of moisture, and

are almost dissolved in it.
§ 301.

PHYSIOLOGY. 935

. § 301. Gosia

The duration of life differs greatly in different
plants. Some species of boletus only require a few
hours to unfold themselves, and as soon again de-
cay. Several fungi live only a. few days, others
weeks and months. Annual plants live three, four,
or at the utmost eight months. Biennial plants con-
tinue sixteen, eighteen, and even four and twenty
months alive. Many herbaceous plants grow a few
years only, but more a long series of years. We
have some shrubs and trees which can live eight,
ten, a hundred, even a thousand years. With us
the oak and lime-tree come to the greatest age. But
the trees which in our globe in general grow oldest,
are no doubt the Adansonia digitata, (§ 263); the
Pinus cedrus, and the different species of palm. ‘The
_ Adansonia probably lives longest of all, as its age
is computed to be one, if not many, thousand years.

VI. BIs-

VI. DISEASES OF PLANTS.

§ 302.

PLants are, like all other organized bodies, sub-
ject to a great many accidents and diseases. The
most common causes are, improper soils, preterna-
tural habitations, late frosts at night time, long con-
tinued rain, great drought, violent storms, parasitic
plants, insects and wounds of various kinds.

Disease we call in plants that preternatural state
by which their functions, or at least some of them,
are disturbed, and the purposes for which they are
destined annihilated.

\

§ 308.

&

The diseases of plants are of different kinds; they

attack either the whole plant, and are then called _
general diseases; or they only affect single parts, —

when they get the name of local diseases. Sporadic
we style those diseases, which of a great number of
the same species of plants, only attack one or the
other. Epidemic, on the contrary, when they in-
vade a great number of plants, such as gangrene,
necrosis, rubigo, and others. |

§ 304.

oe om

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 837

§ 804:

These diseases of plants .aré either’ such ds are
brought on externally only, by accidents and the —
like; or such as originate from a corruption of the
sap and other internal affections destroying organiza-
tion itself. To the first kind belong wounds, frac-
tures, fissures, preternatural defoliations, haemorr-
hagy, mildew, honey- dew, rubigo, lepra; galls ; the
folliculus carnosus, contorsions, warts, moles, squa-
mations, the bedeguar. To the second class of diseases
belong chlorosis, icterus, anasarca, phthiriasis, vermi-
natio, tabes, deliquium, suffocatio incrementi, exul-
ceratio, carcinoma, necrosis, gangraena, ustilago, mu-
tilatio, monstrositas, sterilitas, and abortus.

§ 305.

Vulnus, or a wound, is a separation of the solid
parts by external violence. It is given either purposely
by cutting off branches and the like, or happens acci-
dentally, by cattle, for instance, rubbing against a
plant ; or from friction of two plants, or by the wind
agitating the stem; by the bite of animals, by a
separation of the parasitic plants, or even by
large hailstones. In all those and similar cases, it
is necessary to prevent the access of air to it, by
some good firm cement, or grafting wax. But if
the wound has remained long uncovered and ex-
posed both to wind and rain, and is of a great size,
then the affected part must be taken off as far down
as the sound wood, to prevent greater mischief, and
the whole afterwards be covered with wax. )

(aso YX The

338 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

The means to prevent wounds are obvious.—
branches must be taken off with care; cattle ex-
cluded from the neighbourhood of plantations ;
trees brought up so, as not to require to be fastened
to stakes; or, if necessary, to place three or four
posts or stakes round each, and tie them up very
gently. In violent storms it is indeed better to let
them loose and leave them to themselves. Parasitic
plants must be eradicated. But hurts by the bite,
especially of smaller animals, and by hail, cannot
always be prevented.

§ 306.

Fractura. Fractures are, when a stem or branches
break, or are violently divided into many pieces.
This arises from the violence of the wind; from a
great abundance of fruit; heavy weights of incum-
bent snow, and from lightening. It may be men-
tioned as singular, that lightening runs along dif.
ferent sorts of trees, almost always in a different
manner. ‘The birch, (Betula a/bz), is in this re-
spect different from all other trees, for in it the
lightening never runs along the stem, but strikes
only at the top, where it beats off the boughs almost
ina circular direction. |

A fracture, if not complicated, and on branches
or young stems only, may be healed without dif-
ficulty. ‘But if accompanied by contusion, or hap-
pening in trunks of old gummy trees, recovery is
impossible.

In young trees and branches, even sometimes in
old ones, when instantly discovered, fractures heal
| easily,

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 839

easily, especially in spring till the end of June, pro-
vided every part be brought into its natural pesition,
firmly tied up, and properly supported. But if
there is contusion, or if a thick stem or bough is
fractured, then the whole must be taken off, or the
stem cut down, to get new shoots, from the stock
or the root.

To prevent such an accident, trees with very
tender boughs, must be as much as possible shel-
tered from the wind; fruit-trees ought, when
pruned, to have some of those buds, from which
a fruit may be expected, cut off, and after a great
fall of snow in gardens, this load should be taken
off from the branches. Against the irresistible
power of lightening, no means are of any service,
except conductors, which however, would be too
expensive, and even prove impracticable.

§ 307. |

Fissura. Fissures or clefts are, when a solid
part splits spontaneously in its length so as to leave
acleft. It has two causes, superabundance of juice
or sap, (polysarca), and frost.

To heal a cleft of that kind, nothing else is re-
quired than to put good grafting wax on the wound,
that no rain or other contents of the atmosphere
may destroy the stem.

To prevent clefts, the bleeding or Gian as
it is called, of such trees, the bark of which is very
hard, may be of service. A moderate incision is
made through the bark longitudinally ; and a plant
which stands in too rich a soil, which of course will

Dane produce

$40 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY.

produce an increase of the sap, should be trans-
planted into a poorer soil. ‘To defend them against
frost, plants should be covered with straw. .
Accleft occasioned by the last often degenerates
into a chilblain, (pernio), from which afterwards,
especially in oaks, a blackish sharp liquor exudes,
which at last produces exulceration, (§ 327).

‘ § 308.

Defilintic notha, when the leaves fall not at the
proper period, but much earlier. The injuries of
man, insects, acrid pungent fumes, dust, and con-
stant dry weather, have this effect.

In whatever way it may happen, all depends on
the nature of the plant affected with it, and on the
season of the year in which it happens. If it be a
fast growing tree, and the injury happens before
August, the tree may, if taken good care of, easily
get leaves again, only it will have but a few and
small leaves for the present season. But if the
leaves fall, after that period, and cool weather comes
on earlier than usual, or if it happens at a much
later season, the plant may be unwell for several .
years, before a complete recovery takes place. If,
on the contrary, it happens late in autumn, just be-
fore the natural fall of the leaves, then it has no
bad consequences, except the plants be natives of a
warmer climate, and the branches, which have ap-
peared already, be not yet hard enough, in which
case they will lose those branches, and perhaps
some of the older ones, by the invasion of cold.
‘To deprive trees oe their leaves purposely, which is

done

DISEASES OF PLANTS. S41

done sometimes in spring, particularly with the mul-
berry-tree for the silkworm, should be avoided, or
at least be done with moderation and caution. .

Insects which are noxious to plants, should be
accurately known, and their way of propagation
understood, to obviate all the bad effects: they pro-
duce, and to stop their great mcrease.

Change of place 1s the only means to ea the
noxious influence of acrid fumes, of great manu-
factures and iron-works and the like, as s well as of
dust.

In very long continued dry weather, careful wa-
tering is highly requisite. - abe

The falling, off of the leaves in autumn is quite
consistent with nature, and of no bad consequence —
whatever, except perhaps when the leaves are drop-
ping off too soon, on account of early frosts, which
however will only affect very tender and foreign
plants, of which care should be taken.

Haemorrhagia, or the great loss of sap, is of a
twofold kind, either eae by wounds, or spon-
taneously. ‘Vhe species of birch and AE are very
apt to lose a great deal of sap when wounded, which,
when not Uonpede may kill the tree.

Spontaneous haemorrhagy arises either from acri-
mony of the chyle, or from too great an increase of
the sap. When. the first is the cause of it, no re-
medies are of any avail, as the plant soon dies, and
its vessels become corroded. Spontaneous haemorr-
hagy, from superabundance of sap, is either eum-

ig mous,

542, PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

mous, as in fruit-trees, or watery and limpid, as if
the vine. ‘This last species has been: styled Jacry-
matio. ‘Vhe gummous haemorrhagy proves rarely
fatal, but should not be allowed to make too much
progress, and the wound should be healed up by
wax. hat which happens especially in the vine,
has no bad consequences whatever. For this plant
performs the same functions in winter as all ligneous
plants, (§ 277).. The radicles of it, which have
been formed during the cold season, imbibe a great
deal of moisture from the ground, which they con-
vey to the stem. But as the weather is not soon
enough favourable for the shooting of it, and as the
radicles take up more sap than the tender stalks can
Keep in, the superfluous sap exudes from the gems
or buds. In warm climates the vine does not lacry-
mate; for there the leaves can unfold themselves
instantly, and the sap of course is properly digested.
This watery discharge of the vine is not therefore to
be considered as a natural secretion peculiar to the
plant, but as the effect of cold climates. It how-
ever does not hurt the vine,

§ 310.

Albigo ox mildew, 1s a whitish, thinnish coating of
the leaves of plants, which often causes their decay.
It is produced by small plants, or by insects. The
first kind appears on the leayes of Tussilago Far-
fora; Wumulus Lupulus ; Corylus Avellana; Lami-
um album ; ; purpureum, and others, It is a species
of fungus of great minuteness, which covers the
leaves : Linné calls it Mucor Erysiphe,
At | The

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 343

The second kind is a whitish slime, which some
species of aphis leave upon the leaves.

As soon as there is the least appearance of mil-
dew, all the leaves stained with it should be plucked
off and burned. In scarce and delicate plants, the
leaves ought to be washed. But where it is pro-
duced by aphides a weak decoction of the dry leaves
of tobacco will be found most serviceable.

Jf, on the contrary, all parts of a plant are full of
it, and the plant is hard and of long duration, then
the parts must, according to what plant it is, be ta-
ken off. If it is an annual, and of great delicacy,
it will be best to wash it, with a brush dipped in
the decoction of tobacco, and afterwards to expose
it to the open air.

§ 311.

Melligo, or honey-dew, is a sweet and clear juice,
which during hot weather is frequently found upon
the leaves, rendering them sticky, and, especially
when it docs not rain, causing them to fall off.
This sweet matter is likewise secreted by aphides,
from peculiar glands at the anus.

In tender plants washing with water, or with the
above decoction is of great benefit ; the fumes of to-
bacco likewise kili the insects.

§ 312.

Rubigo, or a ved matter of the appearance of rust,
is seen frequently on the leaves and stems of many
plants.. It consists of yellow or brown stains, which
when touched, give out a powder of the same cMfour,

Y 4 which

DAA PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

which ‘soils. Microscopical examination has shewn,
that this rust-like matter consists of small fungi,
which are called Aecidium, and the seeds:of which
form this brownish powder. We find them fre-
quently inithe leaves and stems of Euphorbia Cy-
parissias ; Berberis vulgaris ; Rhamnus catharticus ;
and some gramina; of wheat, oats, &c. If they are
very numerous, especially in the different: species of
gramina and corn, consumption is the consequence.

» Little 1s to be done against this affection. In the
species of iwheat, oat, and the like, some have re-
commended to moisten the grain, before sawn, in
salt, or lume water, or to sow grain from countries
where this disease does not prevail. Palliatives, «ar
preservative means, are of no use. . |

§ 13139.

Lepra.is frequently met with on the trunks, espe-
cially of young trees. If trunks are so entirely
covered with algae, that the pores of the cutis be;
come shut up, we call the distemper /epra. » Old
trees have their trunks full of algae, without suffer-

‘ing in the least, provided the smaller branches be
free of them. But if young trees or shrubs grow in
too sterile a soil, or in too thin a stratum of fertile
soil, or in gravelly soil; im improper situations, the
ground being either too moist or too dry,’ and the
plants, against their nature, too much exposed to
wind; then they sicken, their bark cannot perform
with proper vigour the functions peculiar to it as the
skin-of the tree, and they grow at last, even at their
yous boughs, all over with fungi of all kinds. : .,Vi-
| gorous

DISEASES GF PLANTS. |" 345

gorous plants, therefore, though their close neigh-
bours, will have few or no fungi on their:stems.
The lepra increases sickness in plants, and they
die at last of a decay, if not cleared of the fungi all
over their cutis, and transplanted ‘n better situations
and more proper soils. |

, § 314.

Gallae, or galls, are produced by a small. flying
insect; the Cynips of Linné. Galls are round,
fleshy, variously shaped bodies, which are attached
to the stem, petioles, peduncles, and the leaves.
They are formed in the following manner: ‘The
little insect pierces with its sting the substance of
the plant, and deposits its eggs in the small opening
left: The few air vessels thus injured get a dif-
ferent direction, and twist round the egg. ‘The ir-
ritation which the sting produces, occasions, as al-
ways In-organized bodies, a greater flow of the sap,
(§ 280), towards the wounded place, which is de-
posited in greater quantity than it ought to be, and
a ‘fleshy excrescence is the product. ‘The little larva
which leaves the egg, is nourished by the sap, grows
up, changes into a pupa, and escapes at last-as a
perfect insect, which propagates itself again in the
same way.

It is singular, that each particular fly produces a
gall of a peculiar form. ‘This perhaps may depend
on the peculiar structure of the eggs of each spe-
cies; for we find that the eggs of different insects,
when viewed with the microscope, assume peculiar
shapes. On the oak-treé we §nd a variety of galls, ,

likewise

346 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

likewise on the Salix, Cistus, Glechoma, Veronica,
Hieracium, Salvia and other plants.

The galls of Saivia pomifera, which got its name
from that circumstance, are said to be of a pleasant
taste, and considered as an excellent dish in the
oriental countries.

To remedy this affection, we can do nothing, but
cut off the galls as soon as they appear. his how,
ever cannot be done. in very delicate plants, if we
wish to preserve them. ‘The disease in fact rarely
proceeds such a length, as to hurt the plant ma-
tertally.

§ 315.

The folliculus carnosus foliorum, 1s a gall of a par-
ticular kind, which is subulate and acute. It is
found i Populus zigra and Tilia europaea, and covers
the whole surface of the leaf. It arises in the same
way as the former, but being more frequent oftener
produces disease.

Contorsions, (contorsiones), owe their origin like-
wise to insects, which produce a swelling of the
leaves ; hence they become contorted, which is the
characteristic feature of the disease. It occurs in
Cerastium, Veronica, Lotus, Vaccmium.

f § 816,

Verrucae, or warts, are small tumours, which oc-
cur chiefly in fruits, for instance, in apples. Here
imsects are not the cause, but accidental occurrences,
‘Of the same kind are the (naevi s. maculae), moles,
‘They arise from wounds’of the cutis. Both diseases

are

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 34.7

are harmless, and, as yet, we know no means to
prevent them.

Tuber lignosum is met eh on trunks of trees. It
seems to be produced partly by insects, partly by
changes of weather. It arises from a disturbance in
the active vessels of the inner bark, which by the
application of stimuli, become several times con-
voluted without forming buds or boughs. They
form instead of this, great knobs, which often, in
a bad situation, especially through moisture, exul-
cerate. They not untrequently grow very large,
without the least injury to the tree.

§ Shy.

Squamationes, or spongy swellings, are produced
like galls. A small insect lays its eggs in the apex
of a bud. ‘Thus injured, the branch, which was to
evolve itself from the bud, cannot be properly un-
folded, it remains quite short ; all its leaves, there-
fore, expand themselves from one point, but they
are of small size. The whole has somewhat the
appearance of a rose. ‘Lhis may be often seen,
particularly in willows. |

Such sponeyswellings are of bad consequence ve
in great numbers. ‘he only way to extirpate them,
is, to cut them off, before they are properly formed.

§ 318.

The Bedeguar occurs in roses only, and has the
same origin as the former, with this difference, that
the insect which gives rise to the Bedeguar, deposits

a number of eggs in one heap in the middle of the
| 3 | bud.

348 - PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

bud. - From this a fleshy’ mass of the size of a
fist arises, covered all over with hair-like coloured
processes.

/§ 319.

‘Chlorosis is that affection of plants, when their
green colour ێntirely disappears, and all their parts
grow whitish. It arises‘fromi this circumstance, that
these plants cannot excrete their oxygen, which
therefore becomés accumulated. There are three
causes of the disease, want of light ; insects; and
bad soil. We saw before, (§ 278), that a healthy
plant emits oxygen gas in sun light, and that the ac-
cumulation of this gas, when’ not emitted, makes the
sreen colour disappear, (§ 281).”

“As soon as a plant/is deprived of light, it cannot
disengage the oxygen, hence it assumes a white co-
lour, which however instantly ‘goes off, when the
rays of the sun are again admitted. ‘This is the rea-
son why plants, in dark rooms, between’ great masses
of ‘stone, in deep clefts of rocks, beneath the dark
shade of shrubs and trees, &c. grow ae and.of a
whitish colour. | HELD

Insects which bite oi the radicles of slate se or
even nestle'in them, and consume they food, debi-
litate: their vessels, render them insensible of. the
stimulus of light, and at last chlorotic. It occurs
very frequi ently in Secaleicereale. No remedies are
ef any use.

Improper soil, from which plants do not get food
enough, not unfrequently brings on this affection.

| i Tr

DISEASES OF PLANTS, 349

In such case plants may, sometimes recover by |
change of soil.

§ 320. |
Icterus differs from chlorosis,’ only in its colour
and by its cause, which is cold coming on early in
autumn. It is indeed the natural death of the
leaves, and may only hurt the plant itself, when the
cold begins in autumn before due time.

| §, 32).

Arisa ca, or dropsy, arises in plants from long
continued rain, or too profuse watering. Single
parts in this case become preternaturally swelled,
and commonly putrify. Some of the bulbous and
tuberous roots, for instance, are often greatly swelled
after rain. Fruits lose their taste, and become wa-
tery. Seeds do not get ripe or the plant pushes out
young shoots unseasonably from the stem. Most of
the succulent plants suffer from too copious a supply
of water.

Anasarca in plants is generally incurable.

R 399, |
Phthiriasis is that disease of plants, cae the whole

of it is covered with small insects, which feed on
its sap, disturb the important operation .of transpira-
tion, and of course hinder the future’ evolution of
its parts. ‘This disease is produced by three differ.
ent species of insects. In the first place, by the
aphis, of which each plant has almost a peculiar

species

350 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

species. Secondly, by the Coccus, of which there
are various species. ‘That which in our hot-houses
is mostly met with, the Coccus Hesperidum, is the
most dangerous ; those which are commonly found
on the roots of Scleranthus, Polygonum and others,
are less noxious. ‘he disease is lastly produced by
the Acarus ¢ellarius, a small mite, which in hot-
houses likewise spins a very delicate web, over the
leaves of the plants, and thus destroys them. Against
the first species, careful cleaning or even brushing
with suds, or a decoction of tobacco; or fumes of
tobacco in close rooms, may be of service. The
same means may be tried with advantage against the
second species, where it may be likewise very bene-
ficial to place the plant as soon as the temperature is
mild in the open air, ina shady, but airy place.
This last we use likewise to get rid of the Acarus,
which in hot-houses chiefly attacks the genera Sida,
Hibiscus, Dolichos and Phaseolus.

§ 323.

Verminatio, or worms, is not the same affection as
in animals, for it is not worms which produce it,
but the larva of.insects. Stem, leaves and fruits
suffer more particularly from it. ‘The stem of some
trees is very often eaten through, and often dies on
this account. ‘The willow, (Salix a/ba); horse-ches-
nut, (Aesculus bippocastanum) ; the- Typha /atifolia,
may serve as instances.

The leaves are often inhabited by the mining-
worm, as it is called, especially the leaves of cher-

ry-trees.
Fruits,

DISEASES OF PLANTS. oot
Fruits, as plumbs, apples, pears, hazel-nuts, and
the grain of corn and the like, often contain the
larvee of insects, which destroy them.
Except the destruction of the larva no remedies
will resist these ravaging enemies.

§ 324,

Tabes, or the wasting of a plant, is frequently 2
consequence of the already mentioned diseases, or
those which we have still to explain. Its causes,
however, are likewise, sterile or improper soil, un-
favourable climate, clumsy planting, exhaustion of
strength from too frequent flowering, insects, ul-
ceration, and the like. ‘The whole plant gradually
begins to decline, and dries up. As soon as this
disease really appears, help is rarely possible.

There is a kind of tabes in pine trees, which has
been called Teredo pinorum. It attacks principally
their alburnum and inner bark. The causes of this
disease are, long continuing dry weather, or violent
frost of long duration, especially after preceding
mild or warm weather, and violent gales of wind.
Its signs are, an unusual colour of the acerous
leaves, as they are more of a reddish yellow hue.
A. great number of small drops of resin in the mid-
dle of the boughs, and a putrid, turpentine-like
odour spreading in their neghbourhood ; lastly, the
bark scaling off, and the alburnum presenting a
blackish blue appearance. At the same time the
tree is full of insects. This is an incurable disease,
and in large forests nothing more can be done than
strictly to prohibit, that the leaves or the moss round

the

352 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY; ETC.

the roots of the pine trees, be not cleared away, as
this weakens the trees, and pre-disposes them to the
disease.

| § 325.

Debilitas, s. deliquium. Plants which suffer from
debility have all their parts, stem, leaves, flowers,
&c. hanging down quite flaggy and loose. Debility
owes its origin to foul air, want of light, of leaves,
or of moisture. Even to great intensity of light and
other causes, which must be removed as soon as

possible.

§ 326.

Suffocatio incrementi, or ill growth, is when plants
grow little, and remain weak and feeble; their
Jeaves in that case become pale, they shrink to-
gether, and at last the whole decays. ‘This is dif-
ferent from the last disease. ‘he causes of this
are only accidental and may be removed, so that
plants may still recover. These causes are, para-
sitic plants and others, which twist round and at-
tach themselves to their neighbours, and too glutinous
soil. When those impediments to growth are taken

off, the plants will soon be as well as ever.

Darts
Exulceratio. Ulcers are formed when a part of a
plant becomes corroded, and discharges an ichorous
liquor. Wounds degenerate into ulcers if not pro-
perly covered, or if placed in such an unfavourable
place, that rain or snow remain in it and become
3 fusty.

DISEASES OF PLANTS: 353

fusty. Insects sometimes bring on an exulcera-
tion, and other unknown causes likewise produce
it spontaneously: No: ulcer heals up by itself in
plants, and it will do more or less harm, and even
prove fatal, the slower we are in giving proper as-
sistance. All ulcerated parts ought to be taken off,
and the sound parts covered with a coating of graft-
ing wax, or of Forsyth’s cement. Anulcer often
corrodes wood, pith, or other parts of trees, from a
neglect of the gardener ; in this case all that is atfect-
ed, must immediately be cut away, and as just now
mentioned, the access of air must be prevented by the
application of some grafting wax or cement.

From unknown causes the bulbs of hyacinths and:
other fleshy roots exulcerate: ‘Those too must. be
healed by putting them in a dry place, taking off
the diseased part, and covering it with cement.
However, we rarely succeed, as the bulbs are mostly
corroded to the very centre*.

§ 328:

* The best external remedy for plants is the grafting wax,
it carefully prepared. In many cases, however, especially for
large wounds, Forsyth’s cement, for the receipt of which the
king of England payed 3000l: is by far preferable to the for-
mer. ‘This last consists of 16 parts of cow dung, 8 parts of
dry lime taken ftom an old. building, as much charcoal, and
ene part of sand out of a river, which are to be mixed to-
gether into a thick mass In place of the cow-dung, ox’s
blood, .and instead of the lime, dry carbonat of lime may be
employed: . his cement is-to be spread thinly on the affected
part, and to be rubbed with a powder, consisting of 6 parts
of charcoal, and one part of the ashes of burnt bones or car-

| bonate

j
Zé.
oF

B54 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Ȥ 328.

Carcinoiia arborum, or a cancerous affection, oc-
curs principally in fruit-trees, when’ they lose too
much gum, and this undergoes an acetous fermen-
tation. A ‘great spongy excrescence rises, which
even in the driest weather discharges an acrid ichor,
which corrodes every thing. We have two distinct
species, the open and the latent cancer. » The first
species is easily seen, and cured by simply extir-
pating the affected part.’ But the second species
may have'spread far in length and breadth, before
it can be discovered. \ Then we must hasten to save
the tree, the cancerous parts. must be taken off, and
Forsyth’s cement afterwards applied to it.

To prevent the disease, change of place and good
care, to obviate too much formation of oe in fruit-
trees, willprove' beneficial.

§ 329.
Necrosis, or dry gangrene, is that disease which
makes the leaves or other parts to grow black and

bonate of lime, till the surface of the cement is as smooth as
if polished.. Forsyth did wonders with this preparation, and
evured with it almost all external affections of plants without
any further trouble. It does not keep well, and therefore
only as much “of at: must “be prepated, ‘as’is wanted for the
time, or, if/it%is’'to be kept for some’ time, it ought to be
moistened with utine. It should further only be applied dur-
ine dry weather, on purpose to cover the wound with new
bark. Rafn asserts, he had experienced the same good effects
from a mixture of pounded coal and potatoes, or some other
soft subtance, and even prefers this to Forsyth’s mixture.

dry.

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 355

dry. Late night frosts, severe cold in winter, burn-
ing heat, corruption of the sap in single branches,
and smaller plants, are its causes. _ :

Frost coming on ata late period in spring, very
frequently kills young shoots of plants, which there-
fore grow black, and shrink up. To obviate this
accident, young plants should be covered as soon as
cold nights may be dreaded. Others derive great
advantage from conductors of frost, as they style
them, that is, from a compactly twisted cord of
straw, directed into a vessel with water. From se-
vere winter cold, foreign trees suffer chiefly, and such
of our native plants as are very delicate. ‘Their
inner bark becomes frost-bitten, turns black, and it
is impossible to save them. The whole must be
clipped, and the main trunk with the roots only be
allowed to remain, to produce new shoots. Intense
heat will produce ‘the same bad effects in gardens,
or even in forests, where forresters are permitted to
clear away the mosses and dry leaves from the roots.
Single branches sometimes, by the too rapid growth
of others, are deprived of their necessary food, they
become dry and fall off. This may happen without
any injury to the whole. Smaller plants sometimes
induce’ this disease, most frequently in the bulbs of
the saffron, where a species of Lycoperdon oc-
casions it. One part of the coast of Africa, the
gold coast, is infested by ‘a wind called Harmattan,
which kills the a ae their leaves dry and
black. |

Z2 § 330.

re
oy)

PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

§ 330.

Gangraena. Plants affected with gangrene be:
come soft and moist in some single parts, which
at last dissolve in a foul ichor. It chiefly at-
tacks fruits, flowers, leaves and roots, rarely the
stem. Gangrene arises either from too wet or too
fat and luxurious ground, from infection and con-
tusion. It scarcely admits of a cure, especially as
it only infests single parts, but may be prevented by
a removal of its causes.

§ 331.

Ustilago. ‘This singular variety of gangrene oc-
curs most frequently in the species of gramina,
rarely in other plants; sometimes in Scorzonera,
Tragopogon, &c. It arises from a small fungus,
which occupies the whole ear, (arista), which there-
fore cannot form itself properly. Every part of it,
on the contrary, becomes a black, soiling mass.
Moist seasons are most favourable for it, and its
progress is under such circumstances very rapid.

That corn may not be affected with it, such grain
only should be sown, which has not been kept in
damp places, nor has been got from where the dis-
ease prevailed. Neither should the grain be placed too
deep in the ground, especially where the soil is fat,
and the ground moist. When, however, it has once
begun, the plants diseased cannot be cured. In
tender and scarce garden plants, something may be

done by amputating the diseased part just forming.
But

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 357

But this would be as an operation too troublesome
and precarious.

§ 332.

Mutilation happens especially in flowers, and the
name fos mutilatus is used, when single parts of a
flower, particularly the corol, are not quite per-
fectly formed. ‘The causes of this mutilation are,
unfavourable climate, and improper soil. Flowers,
notwithstanding this mautilation, often bear perfect
seeds. ,

The species of violet, Viola odorata and canina,
produce not unfrequently in our climate, if the wea-
ther is not warm enough, flowers wanting the co-
rols. Campanula ybrida has in one part of Ger-
many no corols, but is said to have them in France
and Italy. In several of the companulate flowers
we see sometimes the corol wanting, for instance,
in Campanula pentagona, perfoliata, media. Some
other plants, as Ipomoea, Tussilago, Lychnis, are
liable to the same accident. Ruellia clandestina is
thus called, because it has sometimes flowers want-
ing the corols. The same is said to be the case in
its native country, Barbadoes.

_ Hesperis matronalis, during long continued moist
weather, from superabundance of food, frequently
bears flowers, where the corol has begun to form a

second calyx.
~The common clove pink, (Dianthus caryophyllus),
augments the scales, (squamae), of its calyx so much
that the flower becomes somewhat like the ear of
wheat, and the corol never appears. Less conspi-
L332 cuous -

858 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

cuous is the deformity, when a few stamens only are
not so properly formed as they ought to be.

§ 333.

Monstrositas. ‘When single parts or whole plants
have a preternatural form. In flowers or fruits the
monstrosity 1s often such, as to annul their use en-
tirely.

The stem is sometimes writhed, bent, knotty, too
much depressed, and in a lying posture. Cold
climates in general make plants rough, small, and
crippled. On high mountains the tallest — are
at the summit reduced to a small size.

Leaves not unfrequently become deformed, either
larger or more numerous, thicker, or frizzled.
Every person has seen trefoil with four leaves, or
the preternaturally red coloured leaves of the beech
tree, and others like it.

Fruits likewise are variously deformed, they are
either very large or very small, grown together,
crooked, and the like. These may, however, pro-
duce good seeds. But fruits which are doubled,
where, when one is cut, a second one appears in its
interior, as sometimes happens in lemons, and fruits
which have no seeds, as for instance, the Bromelia
Ananas ; Musa paradisiaca; Artocarpus incisa ; Ber-
beris vulgaris, intirely fail us in performing their
necessary offices.

Monstrous flowers are of no value for the bo-
tanist, as their sexual organs are wanting, and he is
not capable without these to fix the genus. They

may

DISEASES IN PLANTS. | 359 |

taay only be of some importance to him, if they
ellucidate any points in Physiology. Florists value
them, more especially amateurs, for they have ac-
quired so unnatural a taste, as to despise nature in
its simplicity, and with care often transplant these
deformities into their gardens. .

‘The deformities in flowers are the following :-——
Flos multiplicatus, a double flower; Flos plenus, a
full flower; Flos difformis, a deformed flower; and
lastly, Flos prolifer, a proliferous flower.

§ 384

Flos multiplicatus, a double flower, is the begin-
ning of a full flower.. Flowers are styled double,
when their petals exceed the usual number, but
stamens and pistil still remain to do their offices
during impregnation, and to produce ripe seeds.
The first beginning of a double flower is the corolla
duplex, or triplex, where the corol becomes double
or treble. Monopetalous corols are often double,
for instance, Datura; Campanula; but polypetalows
corols still more frequently. As long as the pistil
yemains periect in a flower, and it can bear seeds, so
long the flower is called double. The cause of this
deformity is the same ds.in the following. Very
little care is taken to remedy this evil, as gardeners,
even like to see full and double flowers. But if
botanists wish to see double flowers of herba-
ceous plants restored to their natural and former
state, they ought by all means to give thent by de-

grees worse and worse soil. 3
L 4 4935,

860 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

§ 335.

Flos plenus. A full flower is that where the petals
have become so numerous as to have excluded both
stamens and style altogether. As such flowers want
the necessary organs for impregnation, they will
never be able to produce seeds. A full and double
flower originates from too great richness of soil only.
Numbers of vessels become stuffed, as it were, with
nourishing sap, in a manner that the petals and sta-
mens split and become divided into more petals. Some
flowers are so full that the calyx bursts.

Monopetalous flowers are rarely full, such as Pri-
mula; Hyacinthus; Datura; Polyanthes.

Polypetalous plants are oftener full, as Pyrus ;
Prunus; Rosa; Fragaria; Ranunculus; Caltha ;
Anemone ; Aquilegia ; 5 Papaver or Paeonia, and
many others*.

§ 336.
Flowers which have nectaries in form of a spur or
a cup, usually increase the number of the spur or
cup alone, and lose the petals altogether, or they
retain the last in their natural situation. Or they
lose sometimes the spur or the a and enlarge
only the petals.

* Dianthus Caryophyllus and Papaver . somniferum have
been brought forward as fair instances to prove, that full
flowers may produce seeds. But this is a mistake, a full
flower having been ‘taken for a double one. The last may
bear seeds, but a full flower is totally incapable of it. ,

Of

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 861

Of the first kind Adquilegia vulgaris ; Narcissus
Pseudonarcissus, may serve as instances. In the first
the petals are completely annihilated, and the spur
only increased in number. In this case, then, many
spurs are inclosed in one another like so many paper
bags. In Narcissus the petals remain natural, but
ihe nectarium is multiplied.

The same plants likewise present instances of the
second kind ; in Aquilegia, the spurs are in this case
entirely wanting, and the petals increase in number ;
in the same way Narcissus may souietimes want the
nectarium, and the petals become full. The violet
and the larkspur become full, like those two.

Snseire
Vlowers which have one or a few stamens only,
will seldom be full. When it happens, it is only in
such plants as have a monopetalous corol. As an in-
stance of this kind, I shal! mention Jasminum Sam-
bac. Some of the natural families never yet pro-
duced any double or full flowers. Such are,
Palmae, (§ 143, 1).
Mosses, (§ 143, 56).
Algaeés (§ 143, 57).
Filices; (§ 143,55).
Hungisety Gb. G8);
Calmariae, (ib. 3).
Gramina, (ab. 4).
Apetalae, flowers without petals.
Amentaceae, (ib. 50.)
Vripetaloidae, (ib. 5.)

Orchi.

GS
(op)
LNS)

PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Orchideae, (§ 143, 7.)
Scitamineae, (ib. 8.)
Oleraceae, (ib. 12.)
Inundatae, (ib. 15.)
Bicornes, (ib.18.)
Tricoccae, (ib. 38.)
Stellatae, (ib. 47.)
Umbellatae, (ib. 45.) |
Asperifoliae, (ab. 41.)
Verticillatae, (ab. 42.)

Some of the last, however, afford an exception.
In those flowers which are styled Personatae, (§ 75,
13), it has been only observed in the species An-
tirrhinum. ‘The papilionaceae, (/. c. 32), have been
found full in a few instances only, asin Coronilla,
Anthyllis, Clitoria, Spartium. |

§ 338.

Full flowers, as we have just now mentioned, oc-
cur most frequently in polypetalous corols, but the
monopetalous are sometimes seen full, though this
was formerly denied. Instances are, Colchicum ;
Crocus; Hyacinthus; Polyanthes; Convallaria ;
Polygonatum. ‘The polypetalous corol becomes full
by its petals, the monopetalous by their laciniae.

Full flowers are somewhat of the appearance of
compound flowers, and may therefore easily be taken
by the student for such; but they are easily distin-
guished by the following marks: 1. In the centre
of a full flower remnants of the style are still to be
seen, 2. Each petal is not furnished with stamens

4: or

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 863

pr astyle. 3. After they have blossomed, nothing
remains, and no fruit whatever can be traced.
4, Lastly, no common receptacle is to be found.

| § 339. 3

Compound flowers become full in a peculiar man-
ner. Flores semiflosculosi, when they grow mature,
havea very long germen and a pappus, which is as
long again as the germen, ‘The linguiform corol,
style and stamens are natural, but the stigma is
divided, and of the same length with the corol. ©
Such deformities occur in Scorzonera, Lapsana, and
‘Tragopogon.

By these characters, and that they never bear ripe
seeds, they may be distinguished from natural semi-
floscular flowers.

§ 340.

Flores radiati. Radiated flowers, grow full in a
two-fold manner, either by the disc or centre, (dis-
cus), or by the rays, (radii). . If the disk is full, it
annihilates the radii altogether, and the tubular co-
rols grow longer, so as to get almost a club-shaped
form, and -in this case the stamens are entirely lost.
Instances are, Matricaria, Bellis, Tagetes, &c. In
the same manner, likewise, compound flowers be-
come full, which naturally consist of tubular florets,
for instance, Carduus.

From natural flowers of the same external ap.
pearance, full flowers may be easily distinguished
py the longer corol, and by the want of seeds.

It

B64 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

If the radius is full, then no disk can be seen,
and such a flower gets much of the appearance of
the flos semiflosculosus, from whieh however it may
be distinguished at once, by there being not the least
appearance of stamens. From the simple full flower
the full compound flower differs in this point, that
there is a style attached to each petal. ‘The radius
of a simple radiate flower remains the same in a full
radiate flower. If the radius is beset with prolific
female flowers, then the full flower, consisting of
mere linguiform flowers, is provided with prolific
styles, and may without difficulty, if there be any
natural plants in its neighbourhood, come to bear
ripe seeds. If the radius, on the contrary, consists
of barren female flowers, we commonly find them
to be the same in the full flower.

§ 341.

Flos difformis, the deformed flower, is not a full,
but a barren flower, which in its appearance is un-
like the natural plant. It occurs most commonly in
monopetalous flowers. Some of the labiate and rin-
gent plants especially, belong to this kind, for in-
stance, Ajuga, Mimulus and Antirrhinum. They
crow sometimes longer than usual, assume the form
of egg-shaped corols, which are narrower at the top,
and divided into four lobes: several long spurs are
protruded from their base, which in these flowers
are distinguished by the particular name of Peloria.
The Antirrhinum Linaria very often affords this
variety.

Another

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 365

Another species of deformed flower is the Snow-
ball, (Viburnum Opulus). ‘This shrub has, in its
natural state, small campanulate flowers, which on
their margin are surrounded by large, unfertile, and
rotate flowers. In gardens, and in rich soil, all the
flowers grow into large rotate corols, which are
three times the size of the natural corols... All the
stamens and styles vanish of course. ‘These flowers
are seen in almost every garden.

Another kind of deformed flower has. been ob-
served, though extremely rarely. In one of the
Umbellatae, just beneath the umbella, a compound
flower was found resembling that of Bellis perennis.
(Cf. Botanical Magazine, I. Plate 2.) A flower
like this was found by Gessner on a ranunculus,
(Cf. Joan. Gesner, Dissert. De Ranunculo bellidifloro,
Tiguri. 1753, 4°.) It isa striking phenomenon to
meet on the stem of a flowering ranunculus aad of
an umbella, the flower of the Bellis. Once it was
thought, that the stems of both were grown together,
and that the stem of the Bellis had grown and un-
folded itself in the first like a grafted sprig. But
late observations have shewn, that this flower is not
the perfect flower of the Bellis perennis, but merely
something like it. It is a congeries of many flowers
of the ranunculus or umbella, imperfectly unfolded,
which have retained their small size and yellow co-
lour, and are inclosed in a number of whitish petals,
May not the bite of insects ae this defor-
mity ?

§ 342.

366 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC:

§ 342,

Flos prolifer. Sule flower’ is that ie one
flower is contained within another. This mostly
occurs in full flowers. They are of a double kind,
according as they are ae in simple, or’ In com-
pound asueee | crit

In simple flowers, a stem rises from tne pistit
which buds and flowers. This stem is scarcely ever
covered with leaves, and seldom more’ than ‘one
flower grows from another. Instances of this kind
are, the pinclove, the ranunculus, anemone, roses,
the Geum rivale, and ‘Cardamine pratensis.

This deformity, however, is of a different kind in
compound flowers. For in them a number of stems
rise from the receptacle, which -all bear ‘flowers.
As instances of this deformity I shall name, ‘Sca-
biosa, Bellis, Calendula and Hieracium.

Inthe Uinbellatae something similar has likewise

been observed, to wit, one umbel growing out of the
other, or, what I once: myself saw in Heracleum
Sphondylium; the tallstem had: on its ‘extreme poe
green leaves and small umbels. » ?

Prolific flowers are a great curiosity, but they never
have perfect seeds. I saw it only once in.a lemon, on
the apex of which a stem rose with’ another lemon.
{ doubt indeed if there be any Lahore Honits, the
lemon excepted. :

In such fruits, However, when the common re-
ceptacle grows larger, an appearance like that of
prolific fruits is often met with. Thus have I re-

peatedly

DISEASES OF PLANTS. 367

peatedly, in the Pinus Larix, met with a prolific stro-
bilus. I have indeed seen a strobilus which pro-
duced a sprig, on which other strobili were formed.
In the same: manner prolific spikes are formed. in
rich soil, in Secale cereale, Phleum pratense, Alope-
curus pratensis, and the like. |

3 § 343.

A. very remarkable monstrosity in the, germen is,
what mostly occurs in the gramina and corn, the
Clavus. ‘The seed becomes swelled three times its
usual size and thickness, but has no corcle. The
cause of this affection is not yet known, but chiefly
‘to be placed’ ina fustiness of the adducent and air
vessels. There are two distinct species of it:

1. The simple clavus, which 1s ofa pale violet
colour, in its interior is whitish and mealy, without
any smell or taste, and may be ground. along with
the sound grain, without any bad effects on the last.

2. The malignant clavus, which is dark | violet
blue or blackish, and internally too has a blueish
eray colour, a feetid smell, and a sharp pungent taste.
Its meal is ‘tenacious, imbibes warm water only
slowly, and has no slimy appearance when kneaded.
The bread, however, made of it, has a violet blue
colour. When eaten, cramps, and especially the Ra-
phania of Cullen are produced by it. Persons should
therefore be warned against the use of such meal.

6 344.
Sterilitas. We call plants sterile or barren, when
they produce neither flowers nor fruits, All full,
deformed,

368 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

deformed, and prolific flowers, therefore, are sterile,
because the stamens and pistil suffer in them. . But
some plants are sterile only as far as they do not
produce blossoms. ‘The cause of this. may be cli-
mate, too much sap, improper soils, and ill treatment:
Plants, which are transplanted from a warmer cli-
mate into a colder, bloom very rarely. An artificial
degree of heat, like thétr natural, is therefore fre-
quently tiied, but not always with good effect. And
indeed those who are totally unacquainted with the
natural history of such plants, will scarcely: ever
Succeed in’ that'way. An instance will: prove this:
We know that all plants from the ‘Cape of Good
Hope require more warmth in winter than in‘sum-
mer, and we shall, by attending to: this simple fact;
certainly obtain blossoms from them. Fruit-trees,
when they have too much sap, and their outer
bark is too thick, have only a very thin vascular
ring annually formed; the sap therefore must
ascend towards the top arid the boughs, and fruit-
trees of that kind grow often without ever having
blossoms. Gardeners try to remedy this, by lopping
some boughs, cutting off part of the root, and by
removing the plant to a sterile soil; but they are;
notwithstanding all these precautions, often. disap-
pointed. It is a surer method to bleed or scarily,
such trees, as it has been’called, or to scratch super-
ficially, and in a winding direction, their stem. and
principal branches. ‘The vascular rings are then at
freedom to expand, and the tree will most probably
bloom and bear fruits without delay, as the circu-

jation of the sap does not now go on with equal ra-
pidity

DISEASES OF PLANTS, 369

pidity.as before. Improper soil often favours sterility.
If succulent plants, for instance, Cactus, Mesem-
byanthemum, be placed in rich garden earth, they
may grow in it, but scarcely ever, at least very
rarely, bear blossoms. Are they, however, placed
ina ground mixed of loam and sand, then they
will easily shew their blossoms, if they are rightly
treated. [ll treatment indeed suppresses in many 2
plant the approaching flower. Amaryllis formosissi-
ma, if kept constantly in pots, filled with garden-
earth, produces many leaves, but no flowers. But,
if its bulb be taken out and preserved in a dry place,
out of ground, during the winter, a flower will ap-
pear every year. Many other bulbous plants, which
grow in sandy plains in warm climates, do the same.
Instances would be superfluous.

§ 345.

Abortus. If flowering plants, which are provided
with perfect female organs of generation, do not
bear fruit, abortion has taken place. ‘This depends
on a want of male organs of generation, or a vi-_
tiated structure of the separts, violent storms, on va-
rious disorders, too great age and too much sap,
Every botanic garden can shew us numberless in-
stances of abortion. How often do we lose exotic
plants, bearing no seeds, because the male organs
are either wanting or in an imperfect state! How
often might insects, could we obtain proper species,
do this office! If there 1s not sufficient warmth,
which is so often required, to ripen a foreign fruit,
this must necessarily drop off in its immature state.

| Aa Drought

370 - PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY.

Drought and sterile soil not unfrequently deprive
us of the fruit which we expected. Careful water-
ing may assist us here greatly. The larve of va-
rious insects, and often these themselves, when
perfect, rot and destroy the fruit. Winds, old age,
and accidents, often disappoint our hopes of ga-
thering fruit. Here no remedies are of avail, except
avoiding the occasional causes. Finally, from too
great a quantity of sap, many a fruit-tree throws off
its fruit. This happens in the same manner as when
plants do not blossom for superabundance of sap,
and the means above in this case recommended,
may serve us here as well. Most bulbous plants,
when the sap accumulates, drop their immature
fruit. They should therefore be planted in dry
ground. Some bulbous plants indeed only then
ripen their seeds, if their unripe fruit be cut off with
the stem, and kept thus lying for some time.

VII. HIS-

VII. HISTORY OF PLANTS.

§ 346.

By the history of Plants we mean, a comprehensive
view of the influence of climate upon vegetation, of
the changes which plants most probably have suf-.
fered during the various revolutions this earth has
undergone, of their dissemination over the globe,
of their migrations, and lastly of the manner in
which nature has provided for their preservation.

§ 34:7.

Geographers have divided our globe into different
zones, circles and degrees. According to this di-
vision they believe, that under the equator or the
line, the hottest climate is to be found; under the
tropics, a warm climate only ; and between the tro-
pics and the polar circles, a moderate and cold cli-
mate; that lastly, under the polar circle a frigid
climate prevails. In general those divisions are

Aa2 pretty

372 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

pretty just, but mountains, valleys, rivers, marshes,
forests, seas, and varying soil, often make a remark-
able difference, so that some places which, accord-
ing to the above divisions, should be warm, belong
to the temperate or even cold climates, and vice
versa. Wence we must make a careful distinction
between the geographical and physical climate.
America and Asia, though in some parts of the
same northern latitude with us, are much colder.
Plants which in America grow under the 42° nor-
thern latitude, bear our climate of 52 degrees
very well. ‘The reason of this great difference ap-
pears to be, in America, the immense marshes and
woody tracts; in Asia, the much more elevated and
mountainous situation of the country. Africa is
much hotter under the tropics, than Asia or Ame-
rica in the same situation. But in these last coun-
tries, immense chains of high mountains, and moist
ground, moderate the great heat, whereas, on the
contrary, the hot sands, of which Africa almost en-
tirely consists, increase it. ‘The countries about the
North Pole are much more temperate than those of
the South Pole. The Tierra del Fuego, situated un-
der 55° southern latitude, has a much colder cli-
mate than Europe under 60°. High mountains,
which with their lofty summits enter even the
‘cloudy regions, have, in all latitudes of the globe,
their highest points covered with ice. Cook de-
tected such a high mountain in the Sandwich islands,
and in America, the Andés, as they are called, under
the tropics, are eternally covered by ice, whereas in
the valleys beneath, a constant summer reigns.

§ 344.

HISTGRY OF PLANTS. 373

; 348,

Soil, Situation, cold, heat, drought, and great
moisture, are all of powerful influence upon veges
tation. Nobody will wonder, therefore, to find im
every quarter of the globe, plants almost solely de-
stined for these situations. If therefore we find the
plants of the countries within the polar circles on
high elevated mountains, we at once conclude that
those plants grow in cold countries chiefly. And it
is as little surprising to meet in America, Asia and
Africa, i plains of the same latitude, plants of the
same species, belonging in common to the three
parts of our globe.

In a geographical latitude, different parts of the
globe may, provided that mountains or other cir-
cumstances produce no changes in the temperature,
produce the same plants, but in places of the same
Jongitude different products must necessarily always
appear. Brandenburg, the coast of Labrador, and
Kamtschatka have nearly the same latitude, and in-
deed have many plants in common with each other.
Berlin, Venice, ‘Tripolis and Angola, though nearly
of the same lone gitude, differ very van in their ve-
getable productions.

§ 349.

We learned, when treating of the Physiology of
plants, how indispensably necessary warmth was for
vegetation. Hence it follows, that the warmer the
climate, the greater must be the number of wild
growing plants. The Flore of different parts of

Aas the

374s PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

the globe, with which botanists have favoured us,
shew indeed, that vegetation increases with the de-
gree of warmth. In Southern Georgia, according
to credible accounts, only two wild growing plants
are found; in Spitzbergen, 30; in Lapland, 534;
in Iceland, 553; in Sweden, 1299; in Branden-
burg, 2000; in Piemont, 2800; on the coast of
Coromandel, about 4000; in Jamaica as many, and
in Madagascar nearly 5000. Plants grow almost
everywhere, except in the cold countries near the
poles, on summits of the loftiest mountains, both _
eternally covered with ice; and the dry sandy de-
serts of Africa. In barren and naked. countries,
which perhaps have been laid waste by immense vol-
canic eruptions, for instance, in the island of Ascen-
sion, at Kerguclen’s land, &c. few plants are found,

| § 350.

Climate influences greatly the growth of plants as
well as their formation and shape. ‘Those,. there-
fore, peculiar to the polar regions and high moun-
tains are low, have very small compressed leaves,
and often in proportion very large flowers. Euro-
pean plants have rarely very beautiful flowers, and
many are amentaceous. Asia: mostly produces the
greatest beauties, whereas Africa, on the contrary,
has plants with very thick and succulent leaves, and
variously coloured flowers. American plants are
generally remarkable by their very smooth and long
leaves, and a singular shape of the flowers as well
as of the fruit. Those of New Holland, on the con-
trary, have mostly small dry leaves, and a more

| shrivelled

é

HISTORY OF PLANTS. ° 375

shrivelled appearance. ‘Those which grow in the
Archipelago are, in general, shrubby and provided
with prickles. In Arabia almost all plants are low
and grow in a very decrepid form. Inthe Canary
Islands those put on the appearance of shrubs and
trees, which in other countries occur as herbs onlv.

There is a striking resemblance between the trees
and shrubs of the northern parts of Asia and Ame-
rica, whereas the perennial plants, herbs, and under-
shrubs of both countries, do not in the least corres-
pond with each other in their form. The following
list will however prove the above similarity :

In North Asia grow, In North America,

Acer cappadocicum. Acer sacharinum,
Pseudoplatanus. montanum.
Azalea pontica. — Azalea viscosa.
Betula davurica. Betula populifolia.
Alnus. serrulata.
Corylus Colurna. Corylus rostrata.
Crataegus sanguinea Pall. Crataegus coccinea.
Cornus sanguinea. Cornus alba.
Fagus sylvatica. Fagus Jatifolia.
Castanea. pumila.
Juniperus /ycia. Juniperus virginiana.
Liquidambar imberbe. Liquidambar styraciflua.
Morus nigra. Morus rubra.
Lonicera Periclymenum. Lonicera sempervirens.
Pinus sy/vestris. Pinus inops.
MOK ae Strobus.
Platanus orientalis. —- Platanus occidentalis.
Prunus Laurocerasus. . Prunus caroliniana.

Aa 4 Rhodo.

376 _PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Rhododendrum ponticum. Rhododendrum maximum.

Rhus Coriaria. Rhus typhinum.
Ribes nigrum. Ribes floridum.
Rubus fruticosus. Rubus occidentalis.
Sambucus nigra. — Sambucus canadensis.
Styrax officinale, Styrax /aevigatum.
‘Lhuja orientalis. Thuja occidentalis.
Tilia europea. Tilia americana.
Ulmus pumila. Ulimus americana.
Viburnum orientale. Viburnum acerifolium.
Cc, Fc.

Between the shrubby plants of the Cape of Good
Hope and New Holland a great similarity likewise
prevails, May not a certain correspondence of the
soil or the situation of these countries, at the tame
when organic bodies were beginning to be formed,
have produced this great similarity ?

In cold climates a great number of cryptogamic
plants are found, especially fungi, algae, and mosses,
Tetradynamic plants, Umbellatae, Syngenesiae, and,
in general, few trees and shrubs. In warm climates,
on the contrary, trees and shrubs, filices, twining
under shrubs, parasitic plants, lilies, Scitamineae,
(§ 142), are in greatest abundance. Herbs, pe-
rennial and annual, grow there during the rainy
season only. Pinnate and nerved leaves occur more
in those warm countries than in others.

Aquatic plants have, as long as under water, fine
filiform leaves, whick, however, as soon as they
reach the surface, become broad, round, and at their
base more or less laciniate, | |

Plants

HISTORY OF PLANTS. Se

Plants which grow on hills, are, with regard to
the shape of their leaves just the reverse, if compar-
ed with aquatic plants, for their radical leaves are
more or less entire and undivided, but the leaves on
the stem become the more minutely intersected the
higher up they are fixed to it. We find this, for
instance, in the Scabiosa columbaria, Valeriana, and
others.

§ 351.

Plants, as long as they remain in their natural un-
cultivated state, retain mostly the same character,
though sometimes they produce varieties. Those,
however, do not occur so frequently as in plants
which have been long cultivated by art. It is sin-
gular indeed that animals when tamed, and plants
when they have undergone the various management
of art, easily change in form, colour, and taste,
(§ 208).

Alpine and polar plants grow larger in valleys or
gardens ; their leaves gain in length and breadth,
but their flowers are smaller, at least they do not
grow larger like the rest of the plant. Plants of
warm climates often change their appearance so
much, that a pretty good practical botanist would
scarcely be able to recognize them in their native
countries. ‘The varicties of our species of fruit and
oleraceous plants are innumerable.

§252.
Now, how does it come that our globe produces
such an immense number of plants? Were all pro-
duced

378 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

duced when it was first formed, or did these new
Species originate at later periods, and in succession .
from a commixture of different genera? These ques-
tions will scarcely ever be answered in a satisfactory
manner. Linné and some cther botanists think,
that in the beginning there were genera only, by a
commixture of which afterwards species were pro-
duced, which again in the same manner gave rise to
other subspecies. But this is scarcely to’ be ad-
mitted ; for im that case, even in our days, such
commixtures of various genera would give birth
to new species, and this certainly would be no-
ticed by philosophers. If that Infinite Power,
which to the whole universe gave its existence,
formed. different genera, why should it not have
created the species? All in nature is harmony, and
one thing is dependent on another, like the most
compound mechanism. No doubt, therefore, that
the great Author of things created most of our plants,
as they now are. Perhaps some genera of plants,
numberless species of which exist in one country,
have, one or another, produced their species, by
commixture of each other. We find, fo rnstance, at
the Cape of Good Hope, of the genus Erica more
than a hundred species; of Ixia and Gladiolus, about
40; of Protea, 62; and of Mesembryanthemum
near 100; not to mention many other genera there,
full of species. The great likeness of some of them,
which makes it often very difficult to point out a
distinguishing character, seems to prove this still

more.
oy That

; HISTORY OF PLANTS. 879 |

That prolific hybrids are not a very extraordinary
phenomenon in the vegetable kingdom, we had an
opportunity of observing before, (§ 298). We often
see them produced in our gardens, and cannot
therefore deny the possibility of their generation in
open air. But nature has wisely guarded against
too easy a commixtion of such plants in their un-
cultivated, free state. For we often find plants of the
ereatest likeness in partsof the globe very distant from
- each other, andat very different periods, and in different
places in blossom. Plants of great likeness and simi-
larity only can be mixed and produce a hybrid off-
spring. Hence such a commixture never happens
where only few species of the same genus grow in
one climate. One instance will sufficiently explain
this: three species of Scrophularia grow wild about
Berlin, to wit, Scrophularia verna, nodosa and aqua-
tica. ‘Yhe first grows in villages, about hedges, and
blossoms in spring. ‘The second grows in moist
meadow ground, near ditches, and blossoms a month
later. ‘The last grows in rivers, rivulets, marshes,
and ponds, and flowers more than four weeks later
than the second. Other species of the same genus,
and very like those three, grow in Italy, Siberia, in
the East, North America, &c. In all those, no hy-
prids can be formed in their natural state. But
were we to place in a botanical garden all the species,
foreign as well as indigenous, in on espot, no wonder
if the very different climate and soil, which would
probably disagree with many species, would bring
the flowers out sooner or later than natural, and that »
swarms of insects, flying from species to species,

might,

$80 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

might, against our will, give rise to bastard produc.
tions, which in a natural state could not have hap-
pened. We will certainly by and by get acquainted
with some plants which are never found originally
growing wild, but owe their existence entirely to
the botanic garden.

Our numberless varieties of fruit, we owe un-
doubtedly to some kind of bastard generation, and
many of them, which we consider as proper pecu-
liar genera, are perhaps only such preternatural hy-
brids. Ido not think it, therefore, at all impro-
bable, that Pyrus disica, Pollveria, and prunifolia,
owe their existence to such circumstances.

§ 353.

But even should it remain uncertain, whether
some plants have arisen entirely from a commix-
ture of various species, we may perhaps, from the
observations hitherto collected on the subject, be
enabled to make a more certain conclusion, with
respect to the former state of our globe, and the
probability that great revolutions have taken place
in the vegetable world.

Various, and often very fanciful ideas, have been
formed by philosophers, on the origin of our globe,
and the changes it has undergone. Every one sup-
poses he has given a true explanation, but upon the
whole, we have not come nearer the truth. And
indeed we will never have the satisfaction to form a
true idea of the formation of the earth, nor ever be
able to fix the periods with certainty, when all the
preat revolutions in it happened. ;

3 For

DISEASES IN PLANTS. 381

For our purpose it will be sufficient to know,
that such immense changes took place in our globe,
and necessarily had a powerful influence upon the
vegetable world. In northern countries, where the
cold is so great that no trees can grow, and a few
small shrubs with difliculty shoot forth, we find
whole strata and beds of coal, which, as we cer-
tainly know, are vegetable productions. In those
countries, therefore, forests certainly were once in
abundance, where now there are none. In the same
manner, bones of the elephant and rhinoceros are
dug up, though these animals could not now live in
our cold climate. We find in our slate clay, im-
pressions of filices, seeds, and palmae, which do
not occur in our country. About Wettin, near Halle,
(in Upper Saxony), a great number of those im-
pressions in slate elay are found, in which the spe-
cies of several filices can be recognized, which at
“present grow all in the West Indies only. Of some
impressions the originals have not yet been detected.
Tt would be superfluous to mention here the great
number of shells which we find, without knowing
the recent species.

It is only in flat countries: and upon floetz moun-
tains, where these respectable remnants of past times
are met with, and never in primitive rocks. But
not only are the products of warm climates with us
often found buried in the deepest ground, bones
of animals of the coldest regions are likewise found.
And the products of both countries are often mixed
together. Hence we cannot say that the warm cli-
mate once was extended farther to the north; that
our

382 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

our globe changed its situation towards the sun, o#
that the axis of the earth was changed to its oppo-
site point; these are all the speculations of a fanciful
genius. But we need not torment our minds with
hypotheses, formed in the study, and refuted almost
by every newly found petrefaction. Perhaps nature
herself, as we see her now, after many changes and
revolutions, will throw light upon those inexplicable
facts. Perhaps we may some time be able to see the
order in which these revolutions happened, though
not to fix their precise periods, which probably far
exceed our received chronology. |

In plains, which contain a number of sea produc-
tions, and in floetz mountains, which have the pe-
trefactions of the continent, and of the Seas of va-
rious zones, we meet with plants, which bear seeds,
and send their roots deep into the ground, as if they
had grown therefor ages. But experience tells us, that
they could not have originally grown at those spots.
In the primitive mountains only, we may suspect
that every thing remains unaltered, as their founda-
tions never suffered from the gnawing tooth of time.

We find that mountainous countries are richer in
plants than flat countries, and that in primitive moun-
tains the number of plants exceeds that of the floetz
mountains. A country consisting of primitive rocks
has plants which other mountainous countries do
not possess. In all plains of the same latitude, how-
ever far they may extend, the same plants always
occur, only with some little varieties, which depend
on the difference of the soil. In primitive rocks,

and at their foot, we again meet with all the plants
of

HISTORY OF PLANTS. 3843

of flat countries. Wherever primitive rocks sur-
round a plain country, we find all the plants of this at
their root and even at their summits. But after ascend-
ing and descending on the opposite side, we find a
different vegetation, which again extends as far as
the next mountainous chain. ‘The lists of plants of
the different countries of Europe and other parts of
the globe will be of great service to us to prove
this fact. Now, who will doubt, that all the plants
. of flat countries, which were formed at a later pe-
riod, came from the high mountains, and that the
primitive mountains of our globe, were the chiet
sources, aS it were, of the floras of different coun-
tries. Hence America is so full of plants, because
from the North Pole to the South, high mountainous
chains, with numberless intermediate branches, in-
tersect it. Hence Canada produces different plants
from Pennsylvania, this again from Virginia, this
again different plants from Carolina, and Carolina
from Florida, &c. Hence the north-west coast of
North America produces plants which totally differ
from those of the north-east coast, the south-west
coast different plants from those of the south-east.
Islands which are quite flat, have all the plants of
the neighbouring continent, but if they are sur-
rounded by high mountains, many quite peculiar
plants are to be found in them.

It would appear from these facts, that the vege-
table kingdom did not suffer materially from all
those very violent catastrophes. Perhaps those
changes took place only gradually, and several
thousands of years, 1f not more, elapsed before all

things

384 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

things came to that state, in which we find them
now. Most likely our posterity will gaze at simi-
lar changes in a future period, which nature is now
slowly preparing. Nature is always changing, al-
ways operating, and often at a very late period only
we experience the effects of those changes and
operations,

§ 354.

But before all this took place, was not the sea of
far greater extent than at present? Perhaps our
earth then was one sheet of water, interrupted only
by ranges of lofty mountains, and the depth of the
sea itself less. Vegetation only existed upon these
summits. ‘The sea worked gradually deeper in the
ground, and the mountains became lower, and thus
gradually the continent was formed, on which now
the plants of the mountains and those in their val-
leys became disseminated. Here and there the sea
left large lakes of sea water, which were gradu-
ally evaporated, and left the firm fossil-salt be-
hind. Waves or storm winds covered these beds
of fossil-salt with earth or with mud, which finally
became hard and stony. The sea shores nourish
plants, we know, quite peculiar to them, which only
agree with saltish ground, and decay in ground
which contains no salt. Those plants of the sea-
shore, near beds of fossil-salt, find food enough, and
propagate themselves.. Subterraneous springs of
sweet water flowed over those salt beds, dissolved
part of the salt, and came out from the ground

as salt water springs. Here likewise the plants of
the

HISTORY OF PLANTS. 380

the shore got food enough, and grew plentifully.
This appears to be the true origin of salt-springs,
and explains why in their neighbourhocd the plants .
‘of the sea shore are met with. We find stil in the
centre of the continent near salt-springs the fol-
lowing maritime plants, which occur in no other
place, viz. Salicornia berbacea ; Poa distans ; Plan-
tago maritima, subulata ; Glaux maritima ; Samolus
Valerandi; Aster Tripolium; acris, and many others.

§ 355.

Most probably the continent was formed in the
manner just now described. ‘The different products
of sea, lying on the shore, were buried deeper by
the constant play of the waves, which here and there
even raised hills of not inconsiderable size, which
hills perhaps in time, in proportion to the earths
mixed with them, and, according to circumstances,
became a hard lapideous mass. After this, during
a long series of years, the continent rose in its pre-
sent form, violent gales of wind, and the violence
of other furiously ragine elements, volcanoes, and
the like, again tore large masses from it, formed
islands, or carried whole masses of that kind with
their productions into remote regions. Vhus per-
haps many of the exotic natural productions in our
climates were buried in the ground, which we now
_ find in solid rocks, in petrefactions or impressions.
That the currents in the ocean can convey natural
productions to very distant parts of the globe, ex-
perience shews us. For many seeds of West Indian
plants are still thrown on the shores of Norway.

Bb But

886 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

But under what circumstances these probable revo-
lutions took place, or during how many hundreds
of years, are questions which are out of the sphere
of our present researches, and perhaps will never be
clearly and decidedly answered. :

S950)

It is not improbable, that during such great
changes, soine single productions were entirély lost.
We have, for instance, in the animal kingdom,
found several petrefactions, of which the originals
remain still unknown, and of plants some which, as
we now well know, are found at a particular spot of
the globe only. ‘These circumstances seem to prove,
that some violent catastrophe happened in their pro-
pagation, by which even perhaps some were lost.
Thunberg discovered at the Table’ Mountain of the
Cape of Good Hope, in a single spot only, Disa
longicornis, and Serapias tabularia, but never after-
wards any where else. Tournefort found on a
single rock only of the small island Amorgos in the
Archipelago, the Origanum Tourneforii. Sibthorp,
who succeeded him in the same voyage, met with it
on the same spot, and no where else.

Countries, now separated by the ocean, were in
former times most probably joined, at least we may
suspect this from the different natural productions
which both have in common. ‘Thus New Holland
may have been joined to the Cape of Good Hope ;
and Norfolk island with New Zealand. For in New
Holland some plants of the Cape of Good Hope
are found; and New Zealand, which has quite a
Wells different

HISTORY OF PLANTS. 387

alifferent Flora from that of the neighbouring con-
-tinent of New Holland, possesses most plants which
Norfolk island has. he Phormium fevay. in par-
ticular grows in both. Several other observations
like this might be made, would our present limits
permit if.

Bone
Besides the manner, just now noticed, in which
plants probably were disseminated over our globe,
Many circumstances contributed to disseminate them
still more, than would otherwise have happened.
Several seeds are provided with a kind of hooks,
by which they adhere to the skin of animals, and
thus are carried about... Birds seek fer different
seeds, and often carry them to the distance. of miles.
The seeds of several aquatic plants become glued,
_as it were, to the feathers of water-fowls, andagain
are washed off when these birds visit other water.
The seeds of most plants, when perfectly ripe,
sink to the bottom in water. If inclosed in a hard
shell, they will fora long. time remain fresh. 5e-
-veral feet under ground, or at the bottom of the sea,
seeds remain long fit for germination. Air has no
access to such depths, and therefore does not de-
stroy the seeds. Hence it.is that rivers and, seas
may carry seeds from very distant regions. On the
shores of Norway, (§ 355), ripe and fresh seeds
from the West Indies are often thrown out. Did
that climate suit those seeds, we would soon find
the Cocos nucifera and other plants of the warmer
climates germinate there ant Gren up... The seeds
| Bebe of

/

ee

fleshy fruits, cannot disseminate themselves 5 they

388 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

of the Crataegus torminalis are conveyed ' far by our
rivers. Many German plants are found on the
shores of Sweden. Several Spanish and French
plants on those of Great Britain ; many African
and Asiatic plants are met with on the coasts of Italy :
The wind likewise carries those seeds which are pre-
yided with a pappus, with wings, or with mem-
braneous margins, as well as the capsules of seeds
extended by air, that they may germinate in far
distant places. For this reason several plants which
possess very light seeds, have been far disseminated
in the very | direction the wind had mostly blown,
and to greater extent, than it would have happened
witioue’ the aid of the wind. The winged seeds ‘
the birch, (Betula alba), are often carried by win
to the top of high steeples, and the lofty summits
of rocks, where they not unfrequently germinate.
The birch, therefore, on account of the lightness of
its seeds, is disseminated all over the north of Asia,
where the heavy : seeds of the oak, (ouaians robur),
cannot follow. |

“Some seed capsules and fruits burst with a degree
of elasticity which forces the seed round to some
distance, whereas others, on the contrary, can only
remain in the neighbourhood of their original abode,
especially all those that ripen un ider eround, The
pistil of some plants sinks after cite" blooming is
over, into the ground, and there attains its maturity ;
instances of this are, Arachis hypogaea ; Glycine ae.
terranea ; ; Trifolium subterr ameum ; Lathyrus amphi-
carpos ; Vicia subterranea. Berries s, and all the more

fall

HISTORY OF PLANTS. 333

fall to the ground, and their juicy integuments pre-

sent the necessary food to the young plants. Se-
veral birds and other animals feed on them, carry
them off, tear the fleshy part, and thus drop the
seeds, or these pass indigested through their intes-
tines, and thus are spread abroad. In this manner
Viscum a/bum is propagated by a bird, Turdus
viscivorus, and Juniperus communis, and others in like
manner.

Man, however, more than wirid, weather, seas,
rivers and animals, contributes to the dissemination
of plants. He who commands nature, who changes,
deserts into beautiful landscapes; lays waste whole
countries, and again brings them to their former
state, has in various ways favoured the distribution
of anumber of plants over our globe.

The wars in which different natiohs have been en-
gaged, the migrations of nations, the crusades, the
travels of different merchants, and commerce itself
have brought a number of plants to us, and trans-
planted ours into foreign countries. Almost all our
culinary plants come from Italy of the East, as well
as most species of corn. Since the discovery of
America, likewise, we have got several vegetables,
whiéh formerly were not known, but now are uni-
versally spread over Europe.

The common thorn apple, the Datura Stramoniun:,
which now grows almost throughout all Europe, the
colder Sweden, Lapland, and Russia excepted,
and is thrown out asa noxious weed, came from
the East Indies and Abyssinia to us, and- was so tini-

Bb 3 versally

390 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

versally spread over Europe by a set . quacks, whe
used its seeds as an emetic or cathartic.

The Phaseolus vulgaris and Phaseolus nanus, the
Impatiens Salsamina,- and the Panicum miliaceum,
were Drought to us from the East. Indies.

Buck-wheat, and most species of corn and peas,
we have received through Italy from the East.

Apples, pears, plumbs, sweet cherries, (Prunus
avium), the Mespilus germanica, Crategus torminalis,
and hazel-nuts, are originally natives of Germany.
In warmer countries they only improve im taste.
_Uheir diferent varieties, and the rest of. our fruit,
we have obtained from Italy, Greece, and the
Levant.

‘The horse-chesnut, (Aesculus Hippacastanat, as,
through the care of Clusius, first conveyed: from
the north of Asia to Europe in the year 1550. The
Vritilaria imperialis. was brought to us first from
Constantinople in the year 1570.

After America was discovered, many plants were
mported, and grew in our climate. The potatoe
was first described by Caspar Bauhin in 1590, and
Sir Walter Raleigh, inthe year 1623, distributed the
first which he brought from Virginia, in Ireland,
whence all Europe got them. |

Vhe Oenothera dienmis was introduced by the
French in 1674, on account of its eatable root.
Since’ then, it has become so common in Europes
¢hat it grows almost everywhere near hedges and
about villages.

The tobacco, (Nicotiana tabacum), was first de-
scribed by Conrad Gessner in 1584. In the year

1560

HISTORY OF PLANTS. 8G}

1560 it was imported into Spain, and by Nicot, a
French ambassador, into France in 1564.

Cabbage, and .other oleraceous vegetables, came
with the Greeks to Rome, whence they were distri-
buted over Italy and the rest of Europe. To de-
scribe the migrations of all our cultivated plants,
would cost us too much time; .to have mentioned
the most remarkable ones, I suppose, will be suf-
ficient.

Along with the different species of corn, wheat,
and ihe, like, various plants were imported, which
are now considered as indigenous. Such are, Cen-
faurea Cyanus ; Agrostemma Githago; Raphanus Ra-
phanistrum; Myagrum sativum, and others. These
grow among corn only, and never in uncultivated
spots. In the same manner in Italy many Kast In-
dia plants, which grow among rice only, have’ be-
come natives there, by the cultivation of rice. This
plant has been cultivated in Italy since the year
1696; | : |
The Europeans have, wherever they settled in
foreign parts of the globe, planted our culinary ve-
getables. ‘Thus many European plants have got to
Asia, Africa and America, and have been propagated
there if the climate was suitable.

| | § 358. }

Nature always takes care to use one plant for the
benefit of another, and in various ways favours the
dissemination anc propagation of plants. Tn cold
regions, algae and mosses serve this important pur-
pose; but in warm countries, rain, winds, and si-

Bb 4 milay

59e PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

inilar changes in our atmosphere favour their growth,
In our lies besides the algae and mosses, three
great annual storms assist plants in their growth, viz.
in spring, in the middle of summer, and in autumn.
Besides their great use in clearing the atmosphere,
they have a peculiar one in the vegetable world. In
spring storms drive the seed, which has during
winter perhaps remained dry and hanging on the
stern to a distance. In summer they carry off the
seeds of vernal plants which have just ripened; and
in autumn those which in summer or at the end of
summer attained their maturity. Moles and grubs
and dew-worms soften the ground and prepare it
for the reception of thte seed; a hard shower pushes
it deeper info the ground, where through the be-
neficial rays of the sun it can germinate at the pro-
per time. How easily seeds may thus come to places,
totally unfit for their reception, and how many on
that account are lost, is easily conceived. Hence it
appears, that the wise Author of things gave te an-
nual plants a proportionally greater number of seeds
than at the first view would appear necessary. One
plant, for instance, of mays, (Zea Mays), has 3000”
seeds; a sun flower, (Helianthus annuus), 4000 >
Poppy, (Papaver sommiferum ), 32,000 ; and tobacco,
(Nicotiana tabacum), 40,820. Of so gréat a num-
ber of seeds, some must necessarily get to the soil
they require to propagate their’ species.

Naked barren rocks become, by means of the
wind, covered with the seeds of algae, which in
spring and autuinn when they ripen are, by showers,

common at that season, brought to germinate. They
crow

HISTORY OF PLANTS. 339

srow up and cover the rock with variously coloured
leaves, (frons). After some time wind and_ rain
bring fine dust into the clefts of the rocks, and the
decayed algae themselves leave a kind of covering
stratum behind. In this earth, though sparingly
scattered, other seeds of mosses, which chance con-
veys thither, will germinate. ‘They spread and form
a fine green layer, which is soon able to lodge other
small plants in its interior. The decay of those
mosses and smaller plants produces, by degrees, a
thin stratum of earth, which increases with years,
and now even allows some shrubs and trees to grow.
iit, till finally, after a long series of years, where once
barren rocks stood, large forests with their magnificent
branches delight the wanderer’s eye. ‘Thus nature
proceeds, acting by degrees, always great, constant,
and intent on the good of the whole. In like man-
ner, mosses correct and meliorate dry and barren
sand. Plants peculiar to such sandy soil are almost
all of them provided with creeping, spreading roots,
which are very succulent, and imbibe moisture from
the atmosphere. ke therefore render the ground
fit for the reception of algae and mosses, and thus
it is converted into good file soil.

Mosses overspread the trunks and roots of trees,
and have that peculiar property that they becfime
very dry in warm weather, but revive through mois.
ture. hey imbibe moisture eagerly, and retain ii
in their interstices. ‘Vhey receive no nourishment
from the trees, all their food they get from the at-
mosphere. In winter they defend oe trunk against
frost ; in wet weather against petrefaction, a nd dux

(a)

= mo

394 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY; ETC.

ing great drought provide it with moisture, and pro-
tect it against the burnme solar rays. But there is
another suil greater use of mosses, In them plants
and trees grow as well as in the best-mould.. Mr
Gleditsch brougiit several species of fruit to pertec-
tion in moss alone. Some species of moss grow par-
ticularly in marshy places, for instance, the Sphag-
num palustre. Ponds and lakes) are often quite co-
vered with them, and by the aid of the aquatic plants
growing there are transformed into meadows, pas-
tures; and after some time.into richfields.. Ac-
cording to Tacitus the whoie Hereynian forest was
once a marsh; at present fertile and rich meadows
and corn fields are seen in those places described by
that author. Old peasants im our neighbourhood
still recollect many spots, once stagnating pools of

water, now changed into gardens and meadows.
The pecuhar property of mosses to imbibe a great
deal of moisture, is the reason why they mostly
grow in moist spots.. The summits of mountains
are covered witii a variety of mosses, which eagerly
imbibe all the moisture of the clouds around them.
From ‘the very great number of clouds which com:
monly assemble round the summits of mountains,
and completely involve them; the mosses cannot
keép all the water within them. It collects, there-
fore, beneath, in the clefts of the rocks, from where
it runs from all sides towards the lowest part, and
there finally appears as a spring. Several of those
combine to form a rivulet, several of which, again,
swell to a considerable stream. We owe, therefore,
to insignificant mosses, as they appear to be, the
largest

HISTORY: OF PLANTS. SOS

lareest rivers, the draining of extensive marshes, and
the fertility of once barren soils.

§ 359.

It is the constant plan of nature to preserve each
single plant, and to use again for some further pur-
pose every vegetable or animal organ that decays.
Almost the smallest spaces: serve for the habitation
of an animal or plant. The richest as well as the
poorest soils, the barren sand, the naked rock, the
highest Alp, the deepest marsh, the bottom of ri-
vers, of seas, and of the ocean, even the dark ca-
verns in the interior of our earth, and the galleries
of mines, possess their own peculiar plants. Putri-
fying animals become covered with small fungi,
which still more favour their dissolution and change
them into earth, to communicate manure and nou-
rishment to other plants again. In the same manner
have the leaves, stems, the wood and other parts of
vegetables, an innume/able quantity of small fungi,
which promote their decay. ‘hus then, what seems
to proclaim war and destruction, is the lively scene
of a little world. Every thing that is created, serves
in the conservation of the whole.

§ 360.

The plants of fresh water are farther disseminated
than. those of the land. ‘The water mitigates the
cold and heat of climate, hence many European
water-plants are found in hot climates. The Lemna
minor grows not only throughout all Europe and

North Ameri ca, but even eccurs in Asia. It-has

been

OOF Wary y oO Ne ys ae mtr soy
396 PRINCIPLES OF BOW ANY, ETC.

‘been found in Siberia, Tartary, Barbary, Buehary,
China, Gonchinchina, and J Japan. ‘The ‘Yypha lattifolic
grows in Europe, North America, in Jamaica, in Sibe-
ria, China, and Bengal. 'Vhe great number of aquatic
birds, which by a peeniti instinct annually change
a cold chime for a wariner, are the reason of this
sreat dissemination of aquatic plants. Most of the
seeds of these ripen at the very period, when these
birds leave their temporary abode. ‘Phey adhere

oS

firmly to their feathers, or when swallowed by them,
are not unfrequently thrown out with their exete-
thents, entirely unaltered,

§ 361.

Those plants which gow at the bottom of ‘the
sea thrive m almost all clmmates, because the oceat
never either becomes completely cold or ‘warm to
the very bottom, and therefore has. everywliere’ al-
most an equal temperature. Fucus natans, 2 very
common sea plant; which is well known under
the name of sea- ey) or sea-grass, occurs under
the equator as well as near both poles. As the
number of various sea plants is immense, many
may be found in every quarter of the Cui and
ihe nly difference is, that some require a more con-
centrated sea water, others a variety of soils. Others
are either higher or lower in the water, but climate
has no influence but upon such sea plants as occur
in shallow water. It is commonly the case, that the
hills or mountains under the surface of the sea, are
richer in pies than the valleys and deep abhor S$ ir

the

the bottom of ithe Sea.

SOc

x57 ORY OF PLANTS: 5397

§ 362,

Alpine plants, or plants of very high mountains
where these mountainous chains formerly cohered,
but which since the various great changes in our
elobe have taken place, is not now the case, are
pretty nearly the same. At least many plants.may
be found common to the different ranges of moun-
tains, though each has again plants peculiar to itself.
Nay, the more common mountain plants, or such as
occur in the mountains of Europe and Asia, appear
to follow the direction of the line of snow, as geo-
eraphers call at, and are met with in Greenland,
Spitzbergen, Lapland, Nova Zembla, North Siberia,
and Kamtschatka in the open fields, whereas in tem-
perate climates, they grow at the highest summits
of mountains oa The mountainous regions of Si-
beria, Lapland, } Norway, Scotland, Switeerland, the
Pyrennees, Appenines, and Carpathian Alps have

many plants im common with each other. The
smaller mountains of Germany, of the Harz, Thur-
ingia, Silesia, Bohemia, have many plants the same.
One instance will suffice; the bitch, (Betula nana),
occurs mostly in all of them, the inlibe of Siberia,
the Apenines and Carpathian excepted. Does not
this similarity of vegetation, ee winds, birds,
and other circumstances may have contributed to
the dissemination of these plants, prove that these
mountains once cohered? ‘Tournefort found at the
foot of Mount Ararat all the plants of Armenia ;
somewhat higher up, those which are common to
France ; ‘still Michie up, thos ose which grow in Swe-

r

den;

- ee
398 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

den; and at the very summit the common Alpine
plants, which we again meet near the North Pole,
Similar observations have been made by Taos
wijh regard to Mount Caucasus.

Swartz discovered no European alpine plants in
the mountains of Jamaica, but a good number of
our mosses, for instance, Funaria hygrometrica; Bry-
um serpillifelium, caespititium; Sphagnum palustre ;
Dicranum g/oucum, and many more., We know, that
the seeds of mosses are so minute, that a single seed
escapes our view, and can only be observed with 3
considerably magnifying microscope. Should they
not, as it is certain that they are suspended in the
atmosphere, have been driven there by storms, and
as the climate was suitable,. have germinated ? At
‘Yeast this seems to be the only way of explaining
this singular phenomenon.

But when Messrs. Forster met in the Tierra del
Fuego, with Pinguicula alpina ; Galium aparine ;
Statice armeria, and Ranunculus /apponicus ; 1t would
certainly be very dificult to say, how those plants
came to such a remote quarter of the lobe. Per-
haps the great likeness between the European and
Southern plants misled these great philosophers,
though there might be Jisiinaulvhing marks, which,
however, .the two gentlemen, firmly believing then
to be our European species, did not attend to.
When Linné and. other botanists speak of varieties
of a plant in different zones, we cannot always trust
them; for I myself have very often seen, that such
accidental varieties possessed even more fixed distin-

guishing characters, than several species differing
from

HISTORY OF PLANTS.« 399

from them, and that 'they really were different spe-
cies, And why should nature not produce, under
different latitudes and longitudes, species which are
very like each other!

§ 363;

In all climates a singular diversity in plants may
be observed, viz. that some are sociable, as it were,
others remain always solitary ; or some are never
found but in great numbers crowded together,
others are only singly scattered over the ground,
and grow quite solitary. he reason of this sin-
gular phenomenon seems simply to be, that the
seeds of such plants are either too heavy to be car-

ried off by the wind, or that being light they are
carried high up by a gentle breeze, and easily fall;
or that the elasticity of their fruit capsule does not
scatter them sufficiently. ‘The roots of some plants
e likewise luxuriant, and make plants grow in
numbers together.

Vhose gregarious plants often occupy great tracts
of land.. Common heath, (Erica sates is often
spread many miles. The myrtle berry, ( Vaccinium
myrtillus), the strawberry, (Fragaria vesea), some
species of Pyrola, some Junci, and some trees be-
long to them. Solitary plants are, ‘Purritis ¢/abra,
Anthericum Liliago, Lychnis ee. and others. In
very populous Sau man himself changes the
face of the country, by planting forests, and placing
plants closer together, which originally were more so-
itary. The difference, therefore, between solitary and
sociable or gregarious plants only strikes him in such

9
ad as .-
: 1

400 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

as he does not value. To those belong principally
the mosses, for which forresters and farmers care
less than they ought todo. Sociable mosses are,
Sphagnum palustre; Dicranum glaucum; Polytri-
chum commune, &c. Solitary, are, Polytrichum pi/i-
ferum; all the species of Phascum, Weissia palu-
dosa, and many others,

§ 364.

Plants are, like animals, confined to certain cli-
mates and latitudes. Several of warmer climates
by degrees become accustomed to our climates, and
even to much colder ones. The herbaceous plants,
particularly, are sooner accustomed to a cold than.
to a temperate climate. For in cold climates, with
the beginning of winter a great-fall of snow mostly

_occurs, which does not melt before the return of
spring, when no more night frosts are to be dreaded,
and which is only one degree colder than the freez-
ing point. In temperate climates, on the contrary,
it often freezes very hard without the least fall of
snow, and this naturally destroys all plants. ‘Hence
it is that Polar and Alpine plants with us are fre-
quently frozen, where sharp frosts without snow are
a common occurrence; whereas, these plants in thejr
native countries are protected by the snow. Those
herbaceous and annual plants of warm climates only,
which want a longer period for the evolution of
their sprouts and blossoms, than the short summer
of cold climates allows them, or such as want a very
great degree of heat, cannot be brought to live in the
open air in these cold climates,

a ulees

HISTGRY OF PLANTS: GOL

Trees and shrubs seem to stiffer more in a cold
climate than any other, because their perennial stem
reaches far out of ground, and therefore is more ex-
posed to the changes of the weather. Some which |
are natives of warmer climates have, it is true, ac-
customed themselves to our climate, perhaps be-
cause their cellular texture is more tenacious than
that of other plants; many more plants, however,
are unfit for subsistence in our climate, as their or-
ganization is not capable of suffering great changes
of climate.

The most useful plants, however, have, like do-
_mestic animals, the peculiar property of agreeing
with different climates; but if they are confined to
certain climates, then others are found in other cli-
‘mates which serve the same purpose; Under the
equator and the tropics, in all parts of our globe, the
different species of corn cannot grow in a flat coun-
try. But then they possess rice, (Oryza sativa) 3
indian corn, (Holcus Sorghum); and mays, (Zea
Mays); which they use in place of our corn. In
Iceland and Greenland, on the contrary, neither ours
nor the just mentioned species of corn from under
the tropics, will grow. But then they have the
_ Elymus arenarius in great quantities, which serves,
if necessity requires it, fof corn.

Eatable roots and greens never fail in any cli-
mate. Many grow wild in our country, of which
we make no use, but which necessity would teach
us to use, had we not got the oriental garden stuffs.
Our culinary plants, (§ 357), so easily accomodate

; Ce themselves

402 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY; ETC.

themselves to change of climate, that they have fol.
lowed man into almost every zone.--

| § 365. |
From what has been said it follows, that after
such various and manifold changes, it would be
very difficult to fix accurately the point from whence
each plant originally came. We shall, however,
endeavour to make some general remarks with re-
gard to the plants of our part of the globe, and their
most probable dissemination, as we are better ac-
quainted with this part, especially the northern
countries, than with others. Greece only we must
exclude at present, as we know nothing at all of
its botany. Its flora, however, seems to come from —
the mountains of Sardinia, from the coasts of Asia
and Africa, and from the islands in the Archipelago.
We suppose, then, that plants are disseminated
from the highest mountains towards the flat coun-
tries; and, according to this supposition, establish
five principal floras in Europe, to wit, the Northern
Flora, the Helvetic, the Austrian, the Pyrenean,
and the Apenninian Floras. |

The Northern Flora, originates in the mountains
of Norway, Sweden, and Lapland. All these nou-
vish the same plants, which grow in the highest
North. Scotland with its mountains. appears to
have cohered once with those of Norway, as both

have nearly the same plants. |
Vhe Helvetic Flora, originates in the mountains
of Switzerland, Bavaria, and Tyrol. The moun-
tains

HISTORY OF PLANTS. 4.0%

tains of Dauphiny, as well as those in Bohemia and
Siberia, are only lateral branches of the same chain.
All have a great number of plants in tommon.

The Austrian Flora, originates in the Alps of
Austria, Krain, Karinthia, and Steyenmark: ‘The

Karparthians are a side branch of those.

The Pyrenean Flora, originates in the Pyrenees:
The mountains of Catalonia, Castilia and Valentia,
are its branches. |

The Appenninian Flora, originates in the Appen-
nines, which send out many side branches.

The Helvetic Flora is dispersed farthest of all.
All Germany, except Austria and Moravia; all
Prussia, Poland, France, the southern parts ex:
cepted, the Netherlands and Holland, have this
flora. | Us

The Northern Flora comprehends Denmark,
Sweden and Russias as well as a part of Great
Britain.

The Austrian Flora extends from Austria through
Moravia, the southern parts of Poland, Hungary,
Moldavia, Wallachia, Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia,
Croatia, Sclavonia, Istria and Dalmatia.

The Pyrenean Flora goes through all Spain, the
island of Majorea and Minorca, perhaps through
Portugal, but this last remains still to be deter:
mined.

The Apenninian Flora extends all over Italy,
Sardinia, Corsica, and part of Sicily.

If we take the lists of the plants of these five dif-
ferent Floras, we will find the most marked difz
ference in them.

C e 2 § 366.

AO PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ET€.

ir § 866.

It follows. at the same time, that various com-
mixtures of these Floras, after the continent was
dormed and variously cohering, must have taken
place. Hence is southern France where the Hel-
vetic and Pyrenean Vloras combine, so rich in plants.
Hence in Piedmont the Floras'of the Pyrenees, of
Helvetia and. the Apennines mix amongst each
other, whither likewise the sea has carried many
plants of. Northern Africa. Hence Great Britain
has ‘partly 'the Northern, partly the Helvetic Flora,
and in the southern extremity of that kingdom, in
Cornwall, some plants of the Pyrenean Flora, on
account of. the neighbourhood of Spain, appear
among the rest. Sweden, Denmark, and Russia
have not retained the Northern’ Flora unmixed ;
they have ‘got many plants of the Helvetic Flora.
The same is the case with Germany, especially 1h
our Brandenburgh, which ‘has, besides the Helvetic
Flora, got.part of the Northern. From the last we
certainly received, Malaxis Loeselii; Satyrrum 7e-
pens; Uelonias borealis; Vaccinium Oxycoccos; Le-
dum palustre; Andromeda polifolia; Linnaea bo-
‘realis. Of the Helvetic Flora we have, Chironia
Centaurium; Wuphorbia Cyparissias; Cucubalus O7-
tes, and the greatest number of our plants. |

It is a remarkable circumstance that such coms
mon plants as Euphorbia Cyparissias, and Cucubalts
Oxites cease to grow about 100 miles from Berlin
towards the north, and that not one specimen of
them can be found, though they grow very avell in

the

HISTORY OF PLANTS.» 4.05

the botanical gardens which lie farther to’ the north.
Perhaps these plants in time will dissenunate them-
selves farther to the north, and they now actually
spread, though slowly, in that direction. Who can
say whether they may not, after many centuries,
be disseminated a good deal farther, and whether
other plants are not disseminated in the same way ;
and thus, after some years, our Flora about Berlin
will have gained many plants.

Plants which are quickly propagated by seeds,
and have luxuriant roots, must necessarily have been
disseminated a great deal faster. And we should
not wonder to see perhaps some of them dissemin-
ated all over Europe, from one end to the other,
especially such plants, the seeds of which are light,
and can be easily carried off by the wind, which of
course have been easier disseminated than those
which have heavier seeds. Such plants have wan-
dered from Lapland to the extreme corner of Italy,
nay even as far as Africa.

the spciege es Asia has a ae many eee

i iC he ae ne Aa genanl and fu
tween them the Helvetic Flora. It appears as if
‘at an earlier period the continent was forming round
the mountains of Europe, and reaching as far as
the mountains of Asia, without much land, or at least
very little, having then been formed round the moun-
tains of the northwest coast of Asia. No wonder,
therefore, that as far as the Ural and the Altaic range
of mountains, the flat country next to us produces
few Asiatic, but mostly European plants. ___

| Cc 3 North

406 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETE.

North America has a great number of the smaller
European plants, and principally those of the Nor-
thern Flora. Hence it appears probable, that both
Europe and America were once joined, though they
became afterwards separated. :

§ 367.

‘Yo obtain, according to our supposition, a just
idea of the dissemination of plants over our globe,
it would be highly necessary to visit: all high primi-
tive mountains ; to mark down accurately the Flora
of each mountain, but only as far as the foot, and
ithe narrower valleys of the Alps, not to the very
flat country. Was Europe examined after this plan,
we would soon be able to determine from the num-
ber of plants found, how the dissemination of them
took place, what plants from this mountainous range,
and what from another, found their way into the
plains. |
The coast of a country never exhibits to our view
the plants of the interior. On. the former we find
many plants which have come from. neighbouring
countries. For this reason Asia, Africa, and Ame-
rica, under the tropics, have upon their coasts
many plants in common with each other. But if
we proceed farther into the interior, the plants first
seen disappear almost entirely, and the country
now shews us its peculiar Flora, which is the greater
if the ranges of mountains with many branches and
of very varying soil are spread far over the country.
At the Cape of Good Hope we find the Flora so
rich, and at the same time, so unmixed and pure,

Uh because

HISTORY OF PLANTS. 407

because the whole is mountainous. Madagascar is
so rich in plants, because this great island is quite
mountainous, and both Africa and Asia, between
which it lies, have imparted their various produc-
tions to it. The Bahama .islands owe their super-
abundance of plants to their own mountains, and
to neighbouring countries. ‘Uhere we find, besides,
peculiar plants, most of Carolina and Florida, and
many from the West India islands, and of the bay
of Mexico.

§ 368.

I think there is hardly one plant which originally
erew wild in all latitudes. Plants, which are thus
far disseminated, were so by man. ‘The Alsine mz-
dia, of which Linné and others think that it grows
every where, is only found where it has been brought
along with culinary plants. Ido not find it, how-
ever, mentioned by any of the authors on the na-
tural history of the Indies, though, I believe, it may
grow there. But I doubt whether this plant would
be able to propagate itself, in the hot Africa. The
common nightshade, (Solanum nigrum), and the
strawberry, (Fragaria vesca), are said to be far disse-
minated, But philosophers mistook similar plants
for varieties of the common European species, and
indeed considered’ their dissemination in by far too
extensive a view. Only those plants which most
commonly inhabit the coasts, are farther dissemin-
ated than those of the interior of a country. But
even of them the Portulaca oleracea, the Sonchus
eleraceus, and the Apium graveolens, are probably the

Gc 4 only

408 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY.

only ones which have wandered very far. And ine
deed the two last never occur in hot climates.

Ido not doubt, however, that of so vast a num.
ber of plants, there may be some which have so
favourable a constitution, as to bear all climates; as
in the animal kingdom, man, dogs, and swine, which
agree with every possible climate.

VIL. His.

VII HISTORY OF THE.
SCIENCE.

Sb.

Borany, asa branch of Natural History, has only
lately attained that degree of perfection in which we
see it now. Though the scientific knowledge of the
ancients deserves great praise, yet they were very
‘little acquainted with Natural History. A botanist
at that time scarcely deserved the name. The whole
knowledge of plants consisted in a few very unde-
termined names, merely preserved by tradition.
However, as,man soon after began to feel the ne-
cessity and the utility of a better knowledge of na-
ture, more attention was paid to this point. Tspe-
cially great care was taken to fix proper appellations
to the different parts of organization, and to direct
the attention even of those that were not studying .
the science, to this important branch of natural
science. After the art of printing, so favourable
for science, was invented, figures of plants began to
be engraved. These first drawings of plants were
only cut in wood. Plants which have a striking dif.

2 ference

410 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ference from others may easily be distinguished in
this way ; but more delicate plants, which have some
resemblance to others will scarcely ever be distinctly
enough represented in figures of that kind. The
best we have are from Rudbeck, Clusius, C. Bauhin,
and Dodonaeus. ‘The art of engraving in copper,
became soon very important for botany. It enabled
philosophers to make the knowledge of plants of
more general use. ‘The neatest plates are those of
Linné in the Hortus Cliffortianus, of Smith, Cavanilles
and L’Heretier. Some botanists gave engravings
like cuts, representing only the outlines of the whole
plant. Such we have in Plumier, and the works of
the younger Linné. To-procure plates in a still less
expensive manner, some botanists put printer’s ink —
upon plants, which were dried, and then’ threw off
the impressions. Such representations dare, no
doubt, very accurate, but the finer parts of the
Hower are always entirely lost. The best impres-
sions of that sort we have from Junghans and Hoppe.
Of colooured plates those of Roxburgh, Masson,
Smith, Sowerby, Trew, and Jacquin, are the best.
Of a botanist we require in our times an accurate
and thorough knowledge of all wild growing plants,
from the largest to the smallest moss; a complete
knowledge of all the parts of a plant, and of the bo-
tanical terms; lastly, an intimate acquaintance with
all the natural families of the vegetable kingdom,
and with the properties, peculiarities, and different
virtues of plants. In common life we give the name
of a botanist to him, who gives us good represen-

tations of plants, and knows to distinguish some by
agate their

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 41}

their external characters. But the first has no
merit whatever, and his work can only deserve our
approbation as the production of an artist, if his
drawings of plants are well executed. Nor can the
other pass for a botanist, as he is unacquainted with
the smaller plants, such as algae, mosses and fungi.
it is not the simple knowledge of plants that makes
the botanist. “A botanist compares his plant with
all known ones, looks for the distinguishing fea-
tures, and observes attentively nature in general.
Nomenclature alone can indeed never afford us real
pleasure, whereas careful observations will furnish
us with abundant facts for further investigation.
‘The botanist likewise points out to the physician,
farmer, forrester, and artist, all useful plants, and
without him they never can make any certain and
just experiments. |
The history of botany then shews us the gradual
progress which man made in the knowledge of the
vegetable kingdom. To take a view of it with more
facility, we shall divide it into several epochs.

§ 370.
FIRST EPOCH.

from the first origin of the Science till BRUNFELS.

The first inhabitants of our globe were in the
very beginning of their existence obliged to get ac-
quainted with those fruits, which sufficed to satisfy
their moderate desires. Experience soon taught
them, that some plants were very noxious to man.
Only those and the few which they used as food,

were

412 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

were known to them. But as soon as they, began to
disperse here and there, and to require more ne-
cessaries, they were obliged to seek for other ali-
ments. Several diseases, the natural consequences
of a violation of the laws of nature, obliged them to
look for remedies, which they luckily discovered in
the vegetable kingdom, either by accident, or through
animals Thus the inhabitants of Ceylon learned
the use of Ophiorrhiza. A small animal, (Viverra
Ichneuman), which feeds on poisonous serpents, eats,
as soon as bitten by one of them, the root of this
plant. The Ceylonese tried it, and found it an ex-
cellent remedy against such a bite. In like manner
became the Americans acquainted with the use of
Aristolochia anguicida and Serpentaria. ‘Thus the
knowledge of some medicinal plants commenced.
The father shewed them to the son, the son to the
grandson, and so forth. By tradition, the only
means at those times of preserving things from ob-
livion, thely names were communicated to the far-
ihest generations.. |
In the East, at first the only seat of erudition,
most care was taken to acquire a knowledge of the
beneficial or noxious. qualities of different natural
productions. Lhe Chaldeans communicated their
knowledge to the Egyptians, these to the Greeks.
Amongst the Greeks, where indeed real science
first originated, Aesculapius attempted by means
derived fan the vegetable kingdom to cure some
diseases. But medicine soon became intimately con-
nected with religion, In the temples dedicated to
the worship of their gods, the prescriptions of Aescu-
lapius

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 4415

fapius were publicly suspended, and the priests alone
undertook the examination and thie search of officinal
plants, and the treatment of different diseases. “They
were, as followers of Aesculapius called Asclepiades.

The father of medicine, Hippocrates, added to the
observations of Aesculapius a great many of his own,
and first published several works on medicine. In
his writings, the diseased and the healthy state of
man are very fully treated of, and in speaking of
the methods of cure, he has mentioned about 234
plants. But these are only names. Hippocrates was
born 459 years before Curisr, at the island Ces.
He lived to a very old age, though the accounts differ,
some saying he lived to be 89 years old, some 90,
others 104, and a few indeed 109 years. The names
of plants mentioned can be scarcely guessed at, for
though great natural philosophers and linguists have
attempted long ago to fix them properly, notwith-
standing all those endeavours, they still remain very
doubtful.

Cratevas or Cratejas, was a cotemporary of Hip-
pocrates. ‘Cratejas is said to have been very well ac-
quainted with all the herbs and roots of Greece. His
work, ‘entitled ‘PiCcrogixov, has been almost entirely
fost, which is much to be regretted, because, most
probably, the different plants mentioned in the cure
of diseases by Hippocrates, were more accurately
described by him. In the imperial library at Vienna
some single fragments of his work are still preserved,
as Tam told. |

Aristotle first undertook, at the expence of
Alexander the Great, to write a complete natural

history.

414 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETCe

history. ‘This philosopher, however, has paid moté
attention to the rest of the kingdoms of nature thar
to the vegetable Aingdont He lived soon after Hip-
pocrates.

Theophrastus was born at Eresus in the island of
Lesbos about 300 years before Curist. ‘Though
he lived upwards of 8» years, he still complained of
the shortness of human life. He was a pupil of
Plato and Aristotle, and so great a favourite of the
last, that he became the heir of his library, and his
successor in the peripatetic school. Of ail those
which we have named, he was best acquainted with
botany. In his work* he has given us the descrip-
tion of more than 500 plants. ‘They are, however, —
only officinal plants, the use of which he has very
accurately explained.

The Romans, likewise, after their victory over
Mithridates, began to study this branch of natural
history.

Marcus Cato wrote 149 years before CurisT on
medicine, and the remedies used in it.

Marcus Terentius Varro lived at the time of the
emperor Augustus, and wrote chiefly on farming.

Pedanius or Pedacius Dioscorides, born in Asia, at
Anagarba in Cicilia, paid extreme attention to the’
investigation of the medical powers of the vegetable

* Tet Qurov icrogiag. There area great many Latin transla-
tions of this work; the last is Theophrasti Eresii Historia
Plantarum. Lib. IX. cum commentariis J. L. Scaligeri et
J. Bodaei a Stapel. Amstel. 1644. fol.

kingdom.

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 418

kingdom. His work* contains the descriptions of
more than 600 plants. He made many and extens
sive journeys through Asia. Diocorides lived under
the emperor Nero, 64 years after CHRIsT.

Cajus Plinius Secundus, flourished at nearly the
same time. He collected the most important passages
on all parts of natural history from the writings of
his predecessors, but especially used the works of
Dioscorides in his writings on plants. Pliny has
made no discoveries himself. From his 11th to his
19th book he treats on plants. He says strangely
enough, that there are many more plants growing
near hedges, public roads, and in fields, but that
they have no names, and are of no use. In his 56th
year he became the sacrifice of his curiosity and in-
quiries into the nature of things, attempting to wit-
ness an eruption of Vesuvius.

Several Roman authors wrote on plants, but what
they have left are merely transcripts from other
authors.

The writings of some Asiatic writers, as Galenus,
Oribasius, Paulus Aegineta, and some other physi-
clans excepted, nothing more ‘was written on the
productions of the vegetable kingdom. And indeed

* Teel vans lereixns, or De Materia medica, Lib. VI. It was
first published by A. Manuce at Venice, 1499, in folio. Ano-
ther edition was published with notes, by J. A. Saracenus, at
Francfort, 1598, in folio. But we have been favoured by
Van Swieten, at pa 1779, with a very elegant edition
with plates.

as evel

416 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

even these authors gave us nothing else but mere
lists of names, which are of no use whatever.

Soon after Curis several physicians, Mesue,
Serapio, Razis, Avicenna and others appeared in
Arabia. But they mention only the officinal plants
of older writers. |

A long pause now happened, during which science
was, as it were, entirely asleep. ‘The few scattered
writings on medicine and natural history were mere
¢ompilations of old authors, decorated with the pe-
dantic learning of monasteries. Thus botany was
almost forgotten till in the 16th century a German,
of the name of Brunfels, roused this science from
its lethargy.

CMS are the bs
SECOND EPOCH.
From BRunrFe.s til] CAESALPINUS $
From 1530 to 1583. 7

In the last epoch, little or nothing was dene in
botany during a space of some thousand years.
With the catalogues of about 600 plants, a foun-
dation was laid, but no prospect whatever of the
structure to be erected upon this ‘oundation.

This second period indeed presents us with more
promising views. All! science begins to revive again,
and monasteries are no longer the exclusive seat of
human knowledge. Brunfels, Gessner, Fuchs, Do-
donaeus, the ever memorable Clusius, and the great
Bauhin opened the path,

Otte

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES 4.17

Otto Brunfels, son of a cooper, was born at Maynz,
at the end of the 15th century. He was first a Car-
thusian friar, became soon after cantor, (precentor),
in Strasburg. After he had lived there about nine
years, he applied with so much applatise to the prac-
tice of medicine, that he got an invitation to Bern,
where he practised about a year and a haif with ge-
neral approbation, but on the 23d of November,
1534, he died there, lamented by the whole city.
In his work* he has given the first cuts, and he was
also the first botanist in Germany. The drawings
are not very good, and do not in the least corres
pond with his own descriptions.

Hieronymus Bock was born at Peideshaeh in
Zweybruecken, 1498, He lived there for some years;
but went afterwards to Hornbach, where he became
clergyman and physician at the same time. He died
in the 56th year of his age, the 21st of June, 1554.
He changed his name, according to the fashion of
his age, to the Greek name Tragus. In three books

| OF

* Otto Brunfels Historia Plantarum Argentorati; Tom. f.
and II. 1530;-Tom. III. 1536. New editions appeared in
1537 and 1539. ‘Ihe same work was translated into German,
and published at Strasburg, 1532, in folio. ‘Thé second part
appeared 1537. We have, besides, an edition of it, pub-
lished at Frankfort, 1546, in fol.; aid one int Strasburg, 1543,
in gto. The works of Brunfels are very scarce. He has writ~
ten besides something on medicine, and on the plants of

Dioscoridés.

Dd

418 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

of his work* he treated pretty accurately of those
plants, which grow in Germany, and represented
the described plants in 567 figures, which are not
quite bad. It is an objection made to him that he
neglected the virtues of the plants, though he knew
them perfectly well, and that he used the writings ©
of the ancients too little.

Euricus Cordus was born in a small village in
Hessia, and died 1538. He taught and practised
medicine in Erfurt, Marburg, and Bremen. Ac-
cording to the general opinion, he was one of the
most learned men of. his age. He wrote several
treatises on plants, especially those described by the
ancientst.

His son Valerius Cordus was born 1515, and was
unfortunately, when on his way to Rome, 1544,
killed by a horse. His works} are rare, and the
editions of Dioscorides which We a ae are still
thought valuable.

* Hicronymus Boak or Bock called Tragus, Kraeuterbuch
von den vier Elementen, Thieren, Voegeln, and Fischen.
Strasburg. 1546. fol. We have a Latin, new, altered Ger-
man, and different new editions of the old one. This work
begins to be scarce.

+ Eurici Cordi Botanologicon, sive Colloquium de herbis.
Coloniae. 1534. 8vo. His son published a second edition at
Paris, 1551, in 12mo.

t+ Valerii Cordi Historia stirpium Argentorati. 1561. fol.
The famous Conrad Gesner published this work after the au-
thor’s death. The figures are taken from Tragus, and only
60 arenew. The Zurich edition is quite the same.

Conrad

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE: #19

Conrad Gesner, the greatest polyhistorian of his
age, was born at Zurich, 1516, and died there 1565.
He has written on several branthes of natural. his-
tory, botany, and physic. Huis works are-as under*.

Leonard Fuchsius was born in Bavaria; 1501; He
studied at Heilbrun, Erfurt, Ingolstadt, and after
many changes of fate; came as professor to Tuebinr-
gen, where he died the 10th May, 1566. The em-
peror Charles the Fifth esteemed him very highly,
and honoured him in various ways. He wrote a
history of plants, of which many editions have ap-
peared in German, French, and Latiny, and hkewise
wrote notes to Dioscorides, Galen, and Hippocrates, on
which account he entered into a great dispute with the
famous physician arid piilolowiet, John Heynbut or
Hagenbut, who likewise called himself Cornarus. Cor-
narus published a treatise against him, entitled, Vul-
pecula excoriata. Vuchsius answered in another, with
the title, Cornarus-furiens ; after which Cornarus
finished the dispute with the publication of a work,

* Conradi Gesneri Enchiridion historiae plantarum. Basil.
1541. 8vo, De plantis antehac ignotis. Without a year or
place. 12mo. Historia plantarum. Basil. ehe I2mo. De
raris et admirandis herbis, quae, sive quod noctu luceant, sive
alias ob causas, Lunatiae vocantur, Tiguri. TGR sy eAtoy wins
last is extremely scarce.

t Leonardi Fuchsii de historia stirpium comrhentarii itisignes.
Basilide. 1542. fol. It has 512 figures, several of them ta-
Ken from brunfels, though larger. All the trees and smallest
plants are drawn of the same size. ‘Thére is another edition
in 8vo? which is the first.

Dd 2 Mitra,

4.20 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Mitra, s. Brabyla pro vulpecula excoriata asser-
vanda.

Peter Andreas Matthiolus, a physician at Siena,
was born in the year 1500, and died at Trident, in
1577, of the plague. He wasa very celebrated phy-
sician, and we owe him several new medicines. He
had carefully studied the works of the ancients, espe-
cially of Dioscorides. His Kraeuterbuch, (work on
plants), was written originally in Italian, but we have
French and German translations of it*.

Rembert Dodonaeus was born at Mecheln in 1517.
He was one of the emperor’s physicians, and well
known for his skill, all over Germany, France, and
Italy. In the year 1583 he accepted of a call as
Professor to Leyden, where he died 1585. His
chief work t was far superior to any hitherto pub-
lished, as well for the neatness and accuracy of the
cuts it contained, as for the descriptions. It con-
tains about 1330 very good figures, part of which
are taken from Fuchsius, Clusius, and Matthrolus.

Matthias de Lobel, physician to King James 1,
of Great Britain, was born at Brussels in Flanders
in 1538, and died in London 1616. ‘Together with
Peter Pena, a physician in Provence, he wrote the
Adversaria, part of his greater work. He says that

* * Peter Andreas Matthiolus Kraéuterbuch, (work on herbs
and plants), durch Joach. Camerarium. Frankfort. 1590. fol.
with 1069 figures. The first Italian edition was without fi-
gures, and appeared at Venice in 1548.

+ Remberti ‘Dodonaei stitpium Historiae. Pemptades VI.
Antwerp. 1616. fol.

+ of
» Ad
Fr thi )
tb

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE, 424

this physician sent him many rare plants. Some as-
sure us that he has in his works* given many ideal
fioures of plants, and that he has described several
as. growing wild in Britam, which after him nobody
ever could find.

The first is probably more owing to the very bad
manner in which his figures are drawn, which in-
deed never were faithfully copied. His Nymphaea
lutea minor septentrionalium is an ill represented
figure, of the Nymphaea minima lately discovered
in Germany. The second is to be attributed to—
carelessness, as he trusted too much to his memory,
and hence often imagined he had seen a plant in
Britam, which he in fact had met with in other
countries. :

Charles Clusius or Charles de l’Ecluse, was born
at Artois or Atrecht, in the Netherlands, 1526. His
parents wished him to become a lawyer, and he went
with this design to Loewen. But he soon changed
his mind, and, from his great love to botany, soon
undertook the most tedious and troublesome journeys
through Spain, Portugal, France, Great Britain, the
Netherlands, Germany, and Hungary. In his 24th
year he already became dropsical, of which however

* Matth. de Lobelii, (de Obel) Plantarum seu stirpium
historia et adversaria. Antwerp. 1576. fol. Begins to be scarce.
The number of the figures is 1495. Icones plantarum. Ant-
werp. 1581. Pars. I. et II. Square 4to. ‘The publisher of
the first work, Christopher Plantin, has published this without
prefixing Lobel’s name. It has 1096 plates, with 2173 figures,
mostly from Clusius and Dodonaeus.

Dd3 he

ABD PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETE¢.

he was cured by the use of cichories recommended
to him by the famous physician Rondeletius. - In his
39th year m Spain. he broke his right;arm: close
above the elhow, falling with ‘his horse, and soon
after he had the same accident with his right thigh.
{n his 55th year in Vienna he sprained his left foot ;
and eight years afterwards dislocated his hip. This
last dislocation’ was overlooked by his ,physician,
and he had the misfortune to-walk for the remainder
of his life. on crutches... The great pain and. dif-
ficulty he had thus to suffer when walking, pre-
vented him from taking the necessary exercise, in
consequence of which he was affected with a hernia,
obstructions in his abdomen, and calculous com-
plaints. Thus miserable and unhealthy, tired of.
the court of the emperor, where he had resided
for fourteen years past, and finding besides the
superintendence over the gardens there, too great
a burden, he accepted in the year 1593 an in-
vitation as Professor at Leyden, where he died
April 6, 1609. Clusius was the greatest -genius of
his age, and .prosecuted the study of botany with
an enthusiastic zeal, and a perseverance, which was
not equalled by any preceding philosophers, nor by
any of his followers. His works* shew us the great
botanist, and they will always remain valuable and in-
dispensably necessary. The cuts annexed to them are

* Caroli Clusit rariorum plantarum bistoria.. Tom. I. and
{I. Antwerp. 1601. fol. He wrote several small. treatises,
for instance, Plantae pannonicae, hispaniae, historia aromatum,
which may be all found in the large work. .

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 423

neat, the figures distinct, and his descriptions mas-
terly. It was a pity that. aman/of so great merit,
should have suffered so much, and even become the
first martyr for botany..

§ 372.
THIRD EPOCH.
from CAESALPINUS til] CasPAR BAUHIN.
Or from 1583 to 1593.

In this epoch Caesalpinus makes the first attempt
to bring botany under a systematic form. Many
follow his example. The science becomes, more
universally attended to. Voyages to foreign parts
of the globe are undertaken, and the great Bauhin
reduces all these new discoveries to a certain order.

Andreas Caesalpinus came from Arezzo in Flo-
rence. He was called to Rome; where he died as
physician to Clement the Eighth, the 25th of June,
1602. Before him plants had been described with-
out the least order, and nobody thought, by attend-
ing to the similarity of different parts, to render the
study of botany much more easy. His system,
(§ 126), will render him ever memorable. The
writings of this botanist* are so rare, that scarcely
more ee their titles are known now.’

Jacob Delechamp, born in the small place Caen in
in Normandy, in the year 1513, spent most part of

* Andr. Caesalpini de plantis libri XVI. Florent. 1583.
qto. Ejusd. Appendix ad libros de plantis et quaestiones peri-
pateticas. Romae. 1603. 4to.

Dd 4 aay his

424 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

his life at Lyons, and died there 1588, or according
to some 1597. He was the first who intended to
write a general history of all known plants, but by
other occupations he was prevented from continuing
it. An accomplished physician at Lyons, of the
name of John Molinaeus, completed it at the desire
of the bookseller Rovilli *.

Joachim Camerarius was born at Nuernberg, the
6th of November, 1534, and died October 11,
1598. He lived with Melanchthon at Wittenberg,
when a boy, and afterwards studied medicine at
Leipzig. He then travelled over Italy, and gra-
duated 1551 at Rome. He was intimately acquaint-
ed with the greatest botanists of his age. By his
great zeal for botany, he became noticed by Prince
William, Landgrave of Hesse, who was very fond of
sardening, and whose garden in Cassel he undertook
to arrange. His nephew, Joachim Jungermann, a
young but excellent botanist, went, by his desite,
to the East, but had the misfortune during his
gravels to die of an infectious disease. Camerarius
wrote several treatises on economical botany, and
on the plants of the ancients. His principal work f

| contains

* Jacob Dalechampii Historia generalis plantarum, opus
posthumum. Leyden 1987. Vol. I. II, fol. 2686 cuts ; these
contain most of the figures af Cordus, Fuchsius, Clusius,
‘Tragus, Matthiolus, Dodonaeus, and Lobel. More than 400
are two or three times repeated, and the few original ones are
exceedingly bad. \

+ Joachim Camerarii hortus medicus philosophicus. Francf.
ad Pe 1588, 4to. A small treatise of Joannes Thal, a
ei physician

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE, 425

contains 47 figures from Gesner’s collection. For
he purchased Gesner’s whole collection of cuts,
which amounted to about 2500. He made great
use of them in his edition of Matthiolus, and in ano-
ther work * still of ereat value.

Jacob Theodor ‘Tabernaemontanus, a pupil of
Tragus, took his name from his native place Berg-
zabern, a small village in Deuxpont. He was
at the beginning apothecary in Kronweissenburg,
went afterwards to France, returned as Doctor of
Medicine, and at last died as physician to the Elec-
tor Palatine, at Heidelberg, 1590. He was géne-
rally esteemed for his great skill. His work + was
not finished by himself. The second and. third
volumes were written by another, and are inferior to
the ‘first.

Since the Portuguese discovered a passage to the
Indies round by Africa, many went there for the

sake

physician in Nordhausen, the Sylvia Herceynia is added to it.
@his contains an accurate list of all the plants of the Harz.
Fe died at Nordhausen, 1583, by a fall from his horse.

* Joach. Camerarii de plantis epitome. P. Andr. Matthioli.
Franct. ad Moen. 1586. ato. with 1003 fig, Printed along with
it is, Iter ad montem Baldum, Fr. Calceolatii. Franciscus Cal-
ceolatius, or as his proper name is, Calzolaris, was apothe-
cary at Verona, and published this description of the plants of
mount Baldo, in Italian 15663 in Latin i571 at Venice be-
fore Carmerarius.

+ Jacob Vheodor Tabernaemontanus Neuw vollkommen
Kreeuterbach, .darinnen ueber 3000 Kraeuter mit shoenen
Kuenstlichen Figuren, &c. &c. Francf. a. M. 1588. Tom. I.
fol, The second vqlume was published 1590 by Dr Nicolai

Braun - —

4:36 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

sake of trade, as well as soon after the discovery of
America by Columbus, love of money induced many
to visit that country. Some of them, however, un-
dertook these journeys for the investigation of na-
tural history. Of these deserve to be named, Gar-
zias ab Horto*, Christopher a Costat, Joseph a Cos-
tat, Nicolas Monardis, Gonsalvus Ferdinand Ovi-
edo, Franciscus Lopez de Gomara, Franciscus Her-
nandez||, and many others.

Leonard Rauwolff, a German, undertook a
troublesome journey throughout the Levant. He
travelled in the years 1573—1575, through Syria,
Arabia, Mesopotamia, Babylon, Assyria, and Ar-
menia. After his return he settled as physician at

Braun. ‘There are several cther editions by Caspar Bawhin,
two published at Francfort 1613 and 1625, and two at Basil
1664 and 1687. The Latin edition is in square 4to. ; under
the title, Icones plantarum sive stirpium tam inquilinarum
quam exoticarum. Published twice at Francfort, 1588 and
1590. Many of the figures are taken from others, but they
are all very distinct. ‘The Latin editions are scarce.

* Physician to the king of Portugal. Published something
on Aromatics in 1563, in 4to. of which we have transla-
tions in all languages. Clusius got it printed along with
his larger work. :

+ Surgeon, born of Portuguese parents in Africa, wrote
likewise several treatises on Aromatics, to be found in Clusius.

t A Jesuit, wrote a work on animals, plants, and fossils,
Barcelona. 1578. 4to. 7

‘|| Physician to King Philip the Second of Spain. Nova
plantarum et mineralium Mexicanorum historia. Rom. 1651.

Very rare, but quite useless,

A Augsburg,

FIISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. AQ?

Augsburg. On account of his religious protession,
le was obliged to leave his native place, and died.
1596, as physician to the emperor’s army. He has
published a very complete account of his journey*.
Prosper Alpinus, from Marostica, near Venice, went
on account of his love for botany to Egypt. After
his return, he practised as physician in Venice, and
then in Genoa; he came at last as Professor to Pa-
dua, where he died 1617. He was universally re-
garded as avery able man. Botany is indebted to
him for the following writings 7. 3
Joannes Bauhin was born at Lyons, 1541.0 He
was a pupil of Fuchsius, left his native country, and
remained for some time in Yverdon, a town.in the
canton of Bern. He then went to Muempelgard,
where he died as physician to the Duke of Wuer-
temberg, 1613. He travelled through the greatest

* Leonardi Rauwollf, bestallten Medici zu Augsburg,
eigentliche Beschreibung der Rais, so er in die Morgenlaender
vollbracht, in vier verschiedene Theile abgetheilt. Lauwin-
gen. 1583. 4to. mit 43 Figuren von orientalischen PHanzen.
This edition has cuts, and is rarer than the oldest, which was
published at Francfort, 1582. We have French and English
translations of it. In the library at Leyden the herbarium
which he collected in his travels, consisting of 350 plants, is
still preserved. .

+ Prosperi Alpini de plantis Aegypti liber. Venet. 1591.
ate. Another edition appeared there 1592. ‘There are two
other editions, one published at Padua 1639 and 1640, and
another at Leyden 1735. \ ‘

Ejusd. De plantis exoticis libri duo, Venet. 1656. ato
Published by his son Alpinus Alpini.

part

428 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

part of Switzerland and Italy. Whena youth, he
commenced his great work*, which he only finished.
52 years atter. |

Fabius Columna or Colonna, an Italian, was born
1567, and was president of the academy at Naples;
died 1648. He studied chiefly the older botanists.
In his writings— he has strictly followed the an-
cients, without the least systematic arrangement.
Of all works on botany his have the best plates,
It is only pity that he represents all plants of the
same size, whether they are large or small. He
made the drawings for the plates himself.

* Johannis Bauhini Historia plantarum. Tom. J. II. III.
Genevae. 1661. fol. with 3600 cuts. This work was pub-
lished after his death, at the expence of Mr De Grafried, by
Chabraeus.

+ Fabiit Columnae @uroBaceves sive plantarum aliquot his-
toria, in qua describuntur diversi generis plantae veriores, ac
magis facie viribus respondentes antiquorum, Theophrasti, Dio-
scoridis, Plinii aliorumque, delineationibus ab aliis hucusque
non animadversae. Neapel. 1591. with 36 plates. There is a
later edition at Florence, published 1744, with 38 plates,
which is not by far so scarce as the former. .

Ejusd. minus cognitarum nostro coeruleo orientium stirpium
expeacis. ‘Lom. I, I]. Romae. 1606. 4to. Another edition
appeared 1616, with 131 plates, which represent 24% plants.
This book is very rare. ‘The shop price is about 8s. but I
know it has been sold for 41. ‘The new edition has better
plates, and besides a treatise de Purpura, wanting in the first.

ti |S 878,

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. GOO -

§ 373.
FOURTH EPOCH.
From Caspar BAvUHIN ti/] TouRNEFORT.
Or from 1593 to 1694.

Through the persevering exertions of Caspar
Bauhin, botany assumes a regular order. He be-
comes the guide of all other botanists. Discoveries
still continue to be made, but fixed generic names,
and the means of constituting genera, remain still
unknown, till the immortal Tournefort founds a new
system, and introduces new generic characters.
Centuries elapsed before a system was formed, and
when it was formed still another century passed
away before it was thought necessary to fix genera,
and to take the generic character from the struc-
ture of the flower.

Caspar Bauhin, brother to John Bauhin, was born
1560. We travelled like his brother through Italy,
where he discovered many plants, which John
had overlooked. Bauhin got a Professorship at Basil,
and died 1624. Several works* which he has left

* C. Bauhini SvdoriveZ seu enumeratio plantaruth ab her-
bariis descriptatum. SBasil. 1598. 4to. with 9 figutes. The
composition of this work took him 40 years; he has in it
enumerated all the speties, but considered many varieties as
species. |

Ejusd. QWgedeoeos Theatri botanici. Basil. 1620. ato. An
older edition of 1571 contains 140 cuts, which are very distinct.

Hjusd. ‘Vheatri botanic: liber I. Basil, 1658. fol. with
254. ie.

shew

430 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

shew us that he was a preat botanist. He succeeded —
well in his descriptions of plants, and his figures are
good. In the work which was to contain all known
plants, many are wanting. His nomenclature was,
before Tournefort, generally adopted.

Basilius Besler, an apothecary at Nuernberg, who
died 1561, wrote, at the expence of tite bishop of
Aichstaedt, John Conrad de Gemmingen, a very
elegant work*. Some however assert, that Besler
only gave his name, and that the well known Ludwig
Jungermann, Prof. at Giessen, was the real author.

Ludwig Jungermann was born Jun. 28, 1572,- at
Leipzig, died Jun. 26, 1653, at Giessen, as Professor
of Physic. He was a very excellent botanist. +

Jacob Cornutius, a physician at Paris, described
in a peculiar work, the plants which others had dis-
covered in North America, and some growing in
Europe in the gardens of Robinus }.

Johannes Loesel, Professor at Koenigsberg in Prus-
sia, was born 1607, and died 1650. His Floral, or

an

* Basil. Besleri Hortus Eystettensis. Norimb. 1613. Royal
fol. with 265 very neat plates, which represent 1080 plants.

+ Lud. Jungermann Catalogus plantarum quae circa Al-
torficum Noricum proveniunt. Published by Maurit. Hoffmann.
1615, 4to. :

Ejusd. Catalogus plantarum horti et agri Altorfiani. Al-
torf. 1646. 12mo. | :
Eiusd. Cornucopiae florae Giessensis. ,Giessae. 1623. 4to.

A be)
.

t Jacob Cornuti plantarum canadensium aliarumque his-
soria. Parisiis, 1635. 4to. Very rare, but now of little use,
|| Johann Loeselii plantarum rariorum sponte nascentium
wv

in

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 4.3}

an enumeration of all the plants which grow wild in
Prussia, is the only work he has left us.

Joachim Jung was born at Luebeck, Oct. 22,
1587. He was for some time Professor at Helm-
staedt; he afterwards went as rector to Hamburgh,
and died September 22, 1657. In his writings* he
shews a great and extensive knowledge of nature.
His remarks on the vegetable kingdom are just, and
what he says on Terminology, and on the genera of
plants, is done quite in the manner of Linné. Had
his works been better known, and had he been
situated more favourably for acting more at large,
Botany would perhaps have advanced at his time as
far as it is now actually advanced.

John Wray, or as he calls himself after 1669,
Ray, (Rajus), was born in the village of Black
Notely, in Essex, November 29, 1628. During his
travels through Great Britain, France, Germany,
Sweden, and Italy, he paid great attention to all
natural productions. He was a clergyman, and be-
longed to Trinity college, Cambridge; he resiened,

in Borussia, catalogus Regiomonti. 1654. ato. A later edi-
tion appeared at Francfort, 1673. 4to.

Ejusd. Flora Prussica edid. Joan. Gottsched. Med. Prof.
Regiomonti. 1703. 4to. With beautiful plates.

* Joach. Jungii Doxoscopize physicae minores, seu, Isagoge
physica doxoscopica. Hamburgi. 1662. 4to. In the 2d and
3d part he writes on plants.

Ejusd. Isagoge phytoscopica. Hamburgi. 1679. 4to. A
new edition was published in Coburg, LA AtosuWnis
work was published after the author’s death, by Joannes Va-
getius. ‘lhe works of Jung are very scarce.

however,

432 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

however, his place before going abroad, and at his
return lived as a private gentleman. Ray died a
member of the Royal Society in London, Janu-
ary 17, 1705. He lived most part of his life in
the country. The figure of the flower on which
Tournefort founded his system, did not meet witli
his approbation, and a dispute on that account began
between the two philosophers. He is the author of
many works on botany, of which we shall only name
afew*. He followed Jung in some parts, though
not throughout. Ray was one of the most assiduous
botanists, and likewise one of the most learned.
Johann. Sigismund Elsholz, born at Berlin, 1623,
was physician to the elector Frederic William, and
died June 19, 1688. He was the first author who
wrote on the plants of the Marc Brandenburgt.
Paul Bocco, called afterwards Sylvius, was born
at Palermo, 24th April, 1633, and died December
22, 1704. He was a Cistercian friar. and travelled
a ereat deal through Italy. He has written several
small treatises on single plants, but communicated
the most remarkable and scarcest in the following
works {.
| R obert

¥ Catalogus plantarum, circa Cantabrigiam nascentium. Cam-
brigae. 1660. 8vo. This was the first work of Ray it was
published anonymously. Joan. Raji Historia plantarum ge-
Heralis. wiuCnaio, webars TOGO. LU TOS 6. willon mln. nosy
fol. ‘The most important, and the last work he wrote.
{+ Joannis Sipismuridi DLlsholzii Flora marchica. Berol.
1663. SVvO.
t Pauli Boccd icornes et descriptiones rariorum plantarum
Biciliaes

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE: 433

Robert Morison, a Scotchman, was born at Aber-
deen, 1620, and died 1683, as Professor of Botany
at Oxford, in consequence of a violent contusion of
his breast by a waggon. As he had the superin-
tendance of the botanical garden at Oxford, he had
ample opportunity to examine the fruits of plants
more carefully than any preceding botanists. He
has been most esteemed for the accurate division of
the umbelliferous flowers, which is printed along
with his larger work*.

Jacob Barrelier was born at Paris, 1634, studied
medicine, and just as he intended to graduate be-
came a Dominican friar. He travelled several times
through Spain, France, Switzerland, and Italy. Dur-
ing his travels he paid chiefly attention to natural
history. He made drawings of plants, insects, and
shells, and intended to publish, like Columna, a bo-
tanical work, entitled, Hortus mundi, sive Orbis bo-

Siciliae, Melitae, Galliae; et Italiae. Edidit Morison: Oxoniae:
1674. 4to. With 52 plates, which répresent 112 plants.

Ejusd. Museo di Fisica et d’Esperienze. Tom, I. Venet.
1607. 4to.

Ejusd. Museo di plante rare della Sicilia, Maltha, &c. Tom:
08 1647. 4to. These two constitute a work which is ex-
tremely rare, but at the same time is inferior in its plates to
the first.

* Roberti Morisoni historia plantarum. Tom. 1s 8 &
Oxon. 1715. fol. with 292 plates, which represent 3600
plants. The first volume of Morison’s work was never pub-
lished. His small treatise on the Umbellatae has therefore
been afterwards printed as the first volume, and passes under
that title.

Ee tanicus,

434 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

tanicus, whichwas to contain all knownplants. While
ona journey through Italy he became affected with
asthma, which caused his death at Paris, Sept. 17,
1673. The plates have been published since his
death*.

‘Franciscus van Sterrebeck was a clergyman at
Antwerp, and died in 1684. Before him little at-
tention had been paid to fungi. He took many from
Clusius, added a great number of new ones, and
wrote a particular work on themy. But his figures
are very bad, as he has entirely neglected the true
characteristic marks of fungi, and indeed seems to
have given many fictitious representations.

Jacob. Breynius, merchant, and member of seve-
ral societies, was born at Danzig, 1637, and died of
a dysentery, 1697. He corresponded with the first
botanists of his age, and got from them many rare
plants, which he described in several separate
works}.

Heinrick

* Jacob Barrelieri Plantae per Hispaniam et Italiam obser-
vatae; opus posthumum accurante Antonio de Jussieu. P-
rislis. 1714. fol. with 1327 plates, representing 1455 plants.
The last plates contain many figures of zoophytes, and of 40
shells. Several of the figures are taken from Clusius and
others.

} Francisci Sterrebeck Theatrum fungorum, oft het Tooneel
der Campernoellen, &c. Antwerpiae. 1654. 4to. At the
samé place three other editions appeared of 1675, 1685, and
1712.

t Jacobi Breynit Exoticarum et minus cognitarum stirpium.
Centuria I, Gedani. 1678. fol. Published at the author’s.
expence. The 109 plates aecompanying it are very neat.

Ejusd.

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 435

Heinrich van Rheede tot Drakestein, born 1635,
died December 15, 1691. He was governor of the
Dutch settlements in the East Indies, and resided
chiefly in Malabar. He procured drawings of the
principal plants by the first artists, and described
them and their use in the following works*.

Christian Menzel was born at Fuerstenwalde in
the Marc Brandenburg, June 15,1622. He is said
to have travelled a good deal on purpose to examine
the different plants of his native country. Possessed
likewise great skill in a variety of foreign languages,
and was even well acquainted with the Chinese.
Menzel was physician to his Majesty at Berlin, and
died November 16, £701f.

Johann Commelyn, a Dutchman, and Professor
of Botany at Amsterdam, has written principally on
the plants cultivated in the garden there. His most
elegant workt{ was published after his death. Many

notes

Ejusd. Prod#omus rariorum plantarum fasciculus I. IT.
Gedani, 1739. 4to. with 32 plates. This work was pub-
lished by his son John Philip, a physician at Danzig, who
has likéwise written several botanical treatises. —

* Rheedi Hortus Malabaricus Indicus, cum notis et com-
mentariis Joh. Commelini. Tom. I---XII. 1676, 1693. fol.
with 794 very splendid plates. His descriptions are very ac-
curate and faithful. Very scarce.

+. Christ. Menzelii Index plantatum multilinguis, seu Pinax
botanonimos polyglottos. Berolin. 1682. fol. with i1 plates,
which represent 40 plants, not in a very superior style. Scarce.

{ Joan. Commélini Horti medici Amstelodamensis rariorum
¢am orientalis quam occidentalis Indiae plantarum descriptio

et
Eel?

4.36 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

notes of consequence were added by him to the
Hortus Malabaricus..

Caspar Commelyn, a nephew of the former, and
Professor at Amsterdam, was born 1667, and died
December 25, 1731. He followed the footsteps of
his uncle *.

Rudolph Jacob Camerarius, Professor at Tue-
bingen, born February 18, 1665, and. died 11th
September, 1721. Besides some dissertations and .
small treatises, inserted in the Acta Academiae
Natur. Curiosorum, he has not published any great
work on botany. Since Pliny philosophers had
spoken of the sexes of plants, but nothing certain
had been said. Camerarius made the first experi-
ments on the subject.

Paul Hermann, born at Halle in Saxony, July 30,
1640; was for 2 long time physician at Ceylon ;
he went afterwards to the Cape of Good Hope, and
returned with a full collection of rare plants to Hol-
land, where he became Professor at Leyden, and
died ee 25.) LOIS.

beleas

eticones. Opus posthumum a Fried. Ruyschio et Fried. Kig-
gelario. Amstelod. 1697. fol. The plates are beautiful, and
the descriptions accurate.

* Casp. Commelini Flora Malabarica. Leyd. 1696. in fol.
et 8vo.. Ejusdem Praeludia botanica. Amsterdam. 1701 et
4702. ato. Of the large work of his uncle, he published the
second volume 170?. fol,

+ Pauli Hermanni Horti academici Lugduno-Batavi cata-

logus. Leyd. 1687. 8vo.
Ei.

ee FO
PY)

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 4.37

Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, Professor of Botany
vat Leipzig, was born December 3, 1652, and died
December 30, 1722. One cf the first botanists of
that century. His system shews how excellent and
acute an observer of nature he was*.

Leonhard Plukenet, physician at London, col-
lected with unremitting zeal every thing remarkable
in the vegetable kingdom, though he was not in
very favourable circumstances. He made a collec-
tion of 8000 plants, which for his time was astonish-
ingly large. At the end of his life the queen assist-
ed him, and made him Professor and inspector of
the royal gardens at Hampton Court. Plukenet
awas born 1642, and died 1706. No botanist at that
time collected or knew so many plants as he did.
His collection is still kept in the British Museum.
Though he was in possession of so great a number
of plants, yet he was not systematic enough to make
any considerable improvements on the science.

Jacob

Ej. Paradisus Batavus, Leyd. 1698. 4to. Published after
this death by Sherard. A very useful work.

_Ej. Museum Zeylanicum. Leyd. 1717. 8vo. and another
edition in 1726. .

* A. G. Rivini introductio generalis in rem herbariam,
Lips. 1690. fol. A scarce work, with fine plates.

+ Leonhardi Plukenetii Phytographia. Lond. 1691 and
1692. 4to. with 328 plates.

Ejusd. Almagestum botanicum. Lond. 1696. gto. Alma-
gesti botan. mantissa. Lond. 1700. gto. with 22 plates.

Ej.

Kes

438 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Jacob Petiver, a rich grocer in London, ‘who
studied attentively natural history in general, and be-
came member of the Royal Society ; died 1718.
He has made few original discoveries. In his work*
the plates are taken partly from his own collection,
partly from the works of others.

Charles Plumier, a Franciscan friar, born at Mar-
seilles, April 20, 1646; made three times a voyage
to the West Indies, to describe the productions of
the animal and vegetable kingdom. He died at last
at the small island Gadis, near the sea port of Cadiz.
Plumier made neat drawings of the plants he disco-
vered during his travels, and gave most accurate de-
scriptions. Of his numerous collection, he himself
and others after his death, have published but little},

i Amaltheum botanicum. Lond. 1705. qto. with 184
plates. AN those works are published under the general title,
Opera omnia, and constitute a whole. The different plates
together represent 3000 plants.

* Jacobi Petiveri opera omnia ad hist. naturalem spectantia.
Vol. I. et II, fol. III, 8vo. Lond. 1704. This work compre-
hends all his writings. The plates represent animals, petre-
factions, and plants promiscuously. ‘The third volume is only
text, and printed in 8vo. : |

+ Charles Plumier description des plantes de l’Amerique,
avec leurs figures. Paris. 1693. fol. with 108 plates. Very
scarce.

Caroli Plumiecri nova plantarum Americanarum genera.
Parisils. 1903. Ato. |

Ejusd. Filices, ou Traité des Fougeres de ’Amerique, en
Latin et en Francois. Paris. 1705. with 172 plates, which re-
present 242 plants. ‘This scarce work contains the figures of
all the filices of Americ: a, and i is en this subject still the best.

The

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 439

The greatest part of his drawings and MSS, was
preserved in the national library at Paris.

§ 374.
FLETH, EROCH. -
From TOUTNEFORT fo VAILLANT.
Or from 1694 to 1717.

‘Tournefort begins a new era in botany. He fixes
the genera more accurately from the structure of
the flower, and arranges all known plants. Philo-
sophers continue to arrange gramina and foreign
plaats according to Tournefort’s method, which be-
comes known all over Europe, till Vaillant shews
that not yet all the genera are rightly fixed, and ap-
proaches nearer to truth than any preceding natu-
ralist..

Joseph Pitton, called from his native place, Tour-
nefort, was born at Aix in Provence, June 5, 16563
he travelled through France, the Pyrenees, through
England, Holland, Spain and Portugal, and went
at the king’s expence to the Levant. He became
afterwards Professor of Botany, and a knight. Un-
fortunately he lost his life 28th November, 1788,
from a contusion on his breast, by a carriage. By
his system, and his better discrimination of the ge-
nera, he acquired great fame, which could only be
obscured by the superior merits of Linné. During
his travels in the Levant he was accompanied by a
gentleman called Gundelsheimer, who afterwards
founded the botanical garden at Berlin. Tourne-
fort’s collection of plants is kept in the library at

Ke 4 Paris,

44D PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Paris, and that of Gundelsheimer in the’ library of
the Academy of Sciences at Berlin*.

Sir Hans Sloane, an Irishman, born 1660, studied
medicine in France, went to Jamaica, became after-
wards physician at London, and President of the
Royal Society. Died January 11, 1753. His nu-
merous collection of natural curiosities is deposited
in the British Museum. He was a great patron of
science in general{.

William Sherard, a great amateur of natural his-
tory, who spared no expence with regard to botany.
He was a long time British consul at Smyrna, and
founded, after his return, at his country seat at El-
tham near Oxford, a very fine botanical garden.
Except some treatises in the Philosophical Transac-
tions he wrote nothing on botany. Sherard intended
to continue the Pinax of C. Bauhin, but died when
occupied with it in 1738. He has left a certain sum
which is given as a salary to a Professor of Botany
in Oxford! who is to publish his great collection of
drawings.

* J. Pitton Tournefort relation d’un voyage de Levant.
Paris. 1717. 4to. Vol. I. Hl. We have a German transla-
tion, published at Nuernkerg. 1776. in 3 vols. 8vo. This
work contains many plates.
| Ejusd. Institutiones rei herbariae. Tom. I. II. III. Paris.
1719. 4to. with 489 plates. This is the third edition, by the
care of Jussieu. I never saw the older ones.

+ Hans Sloane, Esq.3 a voyage to Madeira, Barbadoes,
Nevis, St Christophers, Jamaica, with the natural history.
London. 1707. fol. A very scarce work, which is even in
London sold for rol. | |

Olaus

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 4.44

Olaus Rudbeck, born at Upsal, March 15, 1660;
took his degree at Utrecht in 1690, succeeded his
father, and died March 23, 1740. His father was
the famous Swedish polyhistorian, Olaus Rudbeck,
Professor of Botany at Upsala. He intended to de-
scribe a number of scarce plants in 12 volumes,
with elegant cuts. His work wasentitled, Campi Ely-
sel. But by the great fire, which in 1702 laid almost
all Upsal in ashes, his herbarium, and this work were
lost. Two copies of the first, and six of the second
volume, are still existing, and considered as great
curiosities*. The father did not survive this great
loss, but died December 12, 1702. The son has,
some dissertations excepted, written nothing on
botany.

Johan. Jacob Scheuchzer, Professor of Mathema-
fics at Zurich, was born 2d August 1672, and died
1738. He travelled repeatedly through the Alpsf,
and became on this account very celebrated.

Johann. Scheuchzer, physician at Zurich, has ac-
quired immortal fame in botany, by describing and
discriminating the gramina more accurately than had

* I saw a copy of this extremely scarce work in the library
of Mr Leysser at Halle. The present possessor of the Lin-
nean herbarium, has published a new edition of it, under the
following title: Reliquiae Rudbeckianae, sive camporum elys-
eorum libri primi, qui supersunt, adjectis nominibus Linnae-
anis. Lond. 1789. fol. |
eae sl Jacob Scheuchzeri novem itinera per alpinas regiones
facta. Tom. I. IV. Leidae. 1723. 4to. Amongst numerous
plates it contains 38 figures of plants.

before

4.22 PRINCIPLES @F BOTANY, ETC.

before that time been done, His only fault is, thas
his descriptions are too prolix*. :

Maria Sybilla Merian, daughter of the famous
Dutch engraver, Math. Merian, born in 1647. Her
great love for Entomology induced her to go for
some time to Surinam, to see with her own eyes
the metamorphoses of the many insects there. After
her return, she published a most splendid workf{ on
the metamorphosis of insects, in which several plants
likewise were drawn, which Caspar Commelyn de-
scribed. Some copies are most splendidly colcured
by herself. Miss Merian died 1717.

Hermann Boerhaave was born near Leyden, in
the villaze Voorhout in 1668. His father, a cler-
gyman, wished him to take orders, and he was there-
fore obliged to study divinity. When on a little
journey, he met with a merchant, against whom he
defended Spinoza’s doctrines. That gentleman, in
consequence of this, informed against him as a he-
retic, and follower of Spinoza, and hence he aban-
doned his former study entirely. Boerhaave after-
wards became Professor of Medicine, Chemistry,
and Botany, and died September 30, 1738. His

* Joh. Scheuchzeri Agrostographiae prodromus, Tiguri.
¥708. fol.

Ejusd. Agrostographia sive graminum, juncorum, cypero-
sum, cyperoidum iisque adfinium historiam. Tiguri. 1719.
Ato. ‘The first small work 1s printed along with this. :

* Maria Sybilla Merian Metamorphosis insectorum Surina-
mensium. Ant. 1705. 1709. fol. with 60 plates, and Dutch
and French text.

fame

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 44,5,

fame as physician and natural philosopher, is known
all over Kurope*.

Engelbert Kaempfer, born in the county of Lippe
in 1651. None of the older botanists ever travelled
so extensively as he did. For he journeyed ten years
in Russia, near the Caspian Sea, in Persia, Arabia,
Hindostan, Coromandel, at the banks of the Ganges,
in Java, Sumatra, Siam, and Japan, where he re-
mained two years. During these travels he disco-
vered and communicated to the worldt many new
plants, especially of Japan. His work consists of
five numbers, the last of which contains descrip-
tions and figures of Japanese plants. The sixth num-
ber, which contained 600 figures of scarce plants,
growing at the Ganges, has been entirely lost. He
died November 12, 1719.

Louis ¥ouillée, a Franciscan friar, travelled to
Peru and Chili. He published his very accurate
journal, containmg his observations, and paid par-
ticular attention to the officinal plantst.

* Herrm. Boerhaave Index alter pl:ntatum horti academic
Lugduno-Batavini. Pars. 1. I. Lugd. 1727. 4to. with 39
plates, which represent mostly plants of the Cape.

_ - Engelb. Kaempferi fasciculi quinque amoenitatum exoti-
carum. Lemgo. 1712. 4to. with many plates, which however
are not very neat.

{ Louis Feuillée Journal des observations physiques, ma.
thematiques et botaniques, faites par ordre du Roi, sux tes
cotés orientales de 1’Amerique meridionale. Paris. Tom. J. if.
(714. Tom. III. IV. 1725. 4to We have an extract of the
botanical part in German.

E44 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC,

SySs. 4),
SIXTH EPOCH.
From VALuant till LINNE.
Or from 1717 to 1735.

Vaullant’s perspicacity discovers the faults in Tour-
nefort’s system, and in his genera. He fixes new
genera, endeavours to bring the smallest plants, as
mosses and fungi, under a csrtain classification, and
first clearly points out the sexes of plants. What
Vaillant was unable to do, to arrange the mosses
accurately and justly, has been ably executed by
Dillenius and Micheli. Linné’s great genius gives
the whole science a more favourable appearance,
and botany now becomes, what it should have been
long before, a structure resting upon a firm foun-
dation. © | :

Sebastian Vaillant was born 26th May, 1669, at
Vigny in France. He studied surgery, but his great
love for botany induced him to study this science
exclusively. ‘lournefort, whose pupil he was, did
every thing in his power to complete the education
of his very promising pupil. He became demon-
strator of botany at Paris. From too great a zeal
for botanical knowledge, he travelled on foot through
all the neighbourhood of Paris, and thus became
consumptive, which put (May 21, 1722), an end to
his active life. |

The smaller plants became the chief object of his
attention. He recognised in the pollen of the Pa-

rietarja the semen masculinum, and did not, with
Tournefort,

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 4a

‘ournefort, consider it merely as an execremen-
titious matter of the flower*.

Heinrich Bernhard Ruppius, a student at Giessen,
was born to be a botanist. He travelled through
the greatest part of Germany on foot, content with
poor sparing diet, often sleeping in the open air.
His knowledge of plants was far more than su-
perficial, and he often even distinguishes plants by
their stamens, and enumerates many new generat.

Johann. Jacob Dillenius, born in Hessia, 1684;
became Professor in his native city, but was soon
called to Oxford, as Professor, where he died in
1747. Like Vaillant he could instantly discriminate
the smallest plants. Dillenius has characterised the
mosses, and his descriptions stand as a model of per-
spicuity. He could himself draw and engrave}.

Johann. Christian Buxbaum wasborn at Merseburg,
in Saxony, in 1694, and studied at Leipzig, Jena and

Wittenberg.

* Sebastiani Vaillant botanicon Parisiense, ou dénombre-
ment par ordre alphabetique des plantes, qui se trouvent dans
les environs de Paris. lLeidae. 1727. fol. with very neat
plates, published by Boerhaave, after the author’s death. | Se.
veral smaller treatises are to be found in the Memoires de
J’Academie de Paris.

+ Henrici Bernhardi Ruppii Flora Jenensis.- Francf. and
Lips. 1788. 8vo. Haller published a new edition at Jena,
in 1745.

ft Joh. Jacob Dillenii Catalogus plantarum sponte cirea
Giessam nascentium. Giessae. 1719. 8vo.

Ejusdem,

446 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Wittenberg. The great Friedrich Hoffmann in Halle,
recommended him to Count Alexander Romanzof,
whowentas ambassador to Constantinople. He visited
many parts of Greece, and returned to Petersburg.
This he left ina bad state of health, and died July
17, 1730, at Wermsdorf near Mersebure*.

Peter Antony Micheli, a poor gardener, was born
-1679.; he was in his last years inspector of the bo-
tanical garden at Florence, and died January 1, 1736.
None of his predecessors dissected flowers so mi-
nutely. He first observed the true flower of mosses, ©
though he did not distinguish accurately the dif-
ferent parts of it. Micheli was likewise the first
who discovered the fruit of fungi J.

Ejusdem ‘Hortus Elthamensis.. Londin. 1732. fol. with 324
good plates, which represent 417 plants. Vhis has again been
published without text, under the title, Horti Elthamensis
icones et nomina. Leyden. 1774. fol. with Linnean names.

Ej. Historia Muscorum. Cxon. 1741. 4to. with 85 plates,
which represent about 600 mosses; an mcomparable work.
In this department of botany nothing almost had been done,
and in his work it has been first fully treated of. It is very
scarce, for there were scarcely 250 copies printed. A sepa-
sate reprint of the plates enpeared in London. 1763.

* J. C. Buxbaumi Flentarum minus cognitarum Cent V.
Petropol. 1728. 4to. The last Centuries were published by
Gmelin, the sixth never appeared. He gives many figures of
African plants which he found in the East. —

+ P. A. Michelii nova plantarum genera. Florent. 1729.
Ato. with 108 very neat plates. It is a pity that the second
part of this excellent work has been lost.

4 § 276.

HISTORY .OF ‘THE SCIENCE. AAT

§ 376.
SEVENTH EPOCH.
From Linn: till. Hepwic.
Or from:1735 to 1782.

Linné demonstrates the presence of sexes in plants,
shews the only right way to constitute genera, in-
vents a new system, and arranges accordingly all
known plants. His pupils disperse all over the globe,
and discover new plants. His system becomes known
throughout all Europe, and every where finds adher-
ents. Hedwig at last discovers the flowers of mosses.

Carolus de Linné was born in the Swedish village
Rooshoolt, in the province Smaland, May 23, 1707.
His father, a clergyman, wanted him to study di-

-vinity ; the-gay youth, however, preferred the open
air, and the gathering of plants. ‘This made his
father destine him for a shoemaker. ‘Thus, had not
the provincial physician at Wexioe, Rothmann, in-
terested himself for him, and persuaded his father
to let him study medicine, Linné’) great genius
would have been for ever suppressed. Linné spent
his academical life under a great many hardships,
and in great poverty. Celsus, Professor of Divi-
nity at Upsal, and’ Rudbeck, at last, began to favour
him. He travelled at the expence of the academy
through Lapland, got after his return, acquainted with
the daughter of Dr Moraeus, afterwards his wife,
who presented him with money to go to Holland to
take his degree. Boerhaave recommended him to

Dr Cliffort, of whose garden and herbarium he had
full

44.8 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

full use, and who sent him for a short time to Eng-
land. After Rudbeck’s death he became Professor
of Botany at Upsal. The king made him baronet,
and at last arehiater, and knight of the order of the
Polar star. He died January 8, 1778. Linne’s
works are too numerous for us to mention them
all, it will suffice to notice the last and best editions
of his principal works *. His real merit in botarty
consists in having corstituted the genera on better
principles, given proper generic and trivial names,
introduced a better terminology, described the spe-
cies more accurately, and invented a new compre-
hensive system founded upon the sexes of plants.

Albrecht von Haller was born 1708. He studied
at Leyden under the direction of the great Boer-
haave, becaine Professor of Anatomy and Botany
at Goettingen, left that celebrated academy, and
went to Bern, where he became President of the
great senate, and died 1777. Haller was one of the
greatest geniusses of our present age, great as ana-
tomist, physiologist, botanist, physician, poet, as po-
litician, and tman of letters.

* Carla Linné. Systetna plantarum curante D. Joh. Jac.
Reichard. Francf: a M:. Tom. I. II. Til: IV. 1779 and
1780. 8vo.

Ejusd. Genera plantarum curante if Christ. Dan. Schreber.
Francof. a M. Tom. I. 1789. II. 1790. 8vo.

Ejasd. Species plantarum, curante D. Carl Ludwig Will-
denow. Tom. I. II. III. Leipz. 1801. 8vo.

4 Albrrechti ab Haller historia stirprum indigenarum Hel-
vetiae. Bernae. 1768. Tom. I. II. III. fol. with 48 plates,

4 John

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 449

John Gottlieb Gleditsch, was born June 5, 1714,
at Leipzig. He studied there, and travelled through
several parts of Saxony. From Berlin, where he
resided for some time to attend the anatomical lec-
tures, he went to the estate of Baron von Zie-
_ then of Trebnitz, where he founded a botanical gar-
den. When Frederick the Great re-established the
Academy of Sciences, he was called to Berlin.
There he was honoured with the title of Aulic
Counsellor, and died after a very active life, Oct. 5,
1786. His restless activity, soft, mild temper, and
constant good humour, made him, even when a very
old man, the favourite of that city. Of his writings
I shall only mention those which have made him
particularly known*.

Johann. Burmann, Professor of Botany at Am-
sterdam, in possession of the scarcest collections of
African and Asiatic plants, made many of his trea-
sures known to ust. He never followed, however,
the Linnean method. )

Johann. Friederich Gronovius, doctor and chief
magistrate at Leyden, and a great friend of Linné,
published the plants collected by Rauwolf and Clay-

ton,

* Joh. Gottl. Gleditschii Methodus fungorum. Berol.
1753. 8vo.
Ejusd. Systema plantarum a staminum situ. Berol. 1704;
$va. |

f+ Joh. Burmanni Thesaurus Zeylanicus. Amstel. 1737.
4to. with 110 plates, which represent 155 plants.

Ejusd.
Fg

450 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ton, and described them according to Linne’s me-
thod. Died in 1783* ie
George Eberhard maitnphitits was born at Hanau.
He went as physician to the East Indies, where he
became chief magistrate and president of the mer-
cantile association of Amboyna, and collected care-
fully all the productions of India, especially plants,
but was, at an old age, unfortunate enough to lose
his sight entirely, so as to judge of every thing by
the touch only. Died 1706 i : |
Johann Gottlicb Gmelin was born in 1710, at
Tuebingen ; went at the advice of some friends in
1727 to Petersburg, where he became a member of
the academy there. He travelled through Siberia,
and died: 1755. From the MSS. left by the unfor-
tunate Steller, Gmelin published a work, the two
last volumes of which appeared after his death f.
John Hill, an Englishman, had an idea of getting all
the plants mentioned by Linné engraved. This very

Ejusd. rariorum Africanarum plantarum Decas I. IX.
Amstel. 1738, 1739. 4to. with 180 plates, containing 215 figures
of the scarcest plants.

* Joh. Fried. Gronovii flora virginica. Pars I. et II. Lug-
dun. 1743. 8vo. | |

Ejusd. Flora orientalis. Lugdun. 1755. 8vo. _

+ Georgii Everhardi Rumphii Herbarium Amboinense.
Tom. I.—VI. cum auctuario. Pekar 1750---1755. fol. with
I °, plates.

t Joh. Gottl. enon Flora iSibiica, Wom: Te-ohve Pette-
pol. 1748, 1769. 4to. with 299 plates. ‘The two last volumes
were published by his nephew Sam. Gottl. Gmelin, the fifth,
however, which contains Cryptogamis, is not yet printed.

large

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 451

jarge work however is useless, on account of the
very bad figures, and indeed of too enormous a
price. Most of the drawings are not taken from na-
ture but from descriptions. It is not therefore sur-
prising that they often do not bear the slightest re-
semblance to the natural flowers *.

Charles Allione, Professor of Botany at Turin ;
an old botanist, still alive, who paid great attention
to the plants of his native country {.

George Christian Oeder was called to Copen-
hagen in 1752. where he became Professor of Bota-
ny... In 1770 the institution to which he belonged as
Professor became disanrulled. He became after-
wards bailiff at Trondheim, and finally went as pro-
- vinelal judge to Oldenburgh, where he remained till
the end of his life, which happened January 28,
1791. A few years before he was ennobled Besides
many other botannical treatises. he has particular
merit in publishing the Flora Danica, which the
King of Denmark still patronizes {.

* John Hill’s Vegetable System. Vol. 1.—X XVI. Lon-
don, 1759---1775. fol. with 1521 plates, which represent 5624
plants, but no trees, gramina, or cryptogamic plants.

+ Caroli Allione Flora Pedemontana. Tom. I. II. III.
August. Taurin. 1785 fol. with g2 plates.

¢ Flora Danica, Hafn. fol. Oceder began this splendidly
coloured work in 1766. He published three volumes before
the year 1770. A volume consists of three numbers, each
containing 60 plates. After his death it was continued by
the famous zoologist Otto Frederic Mueller, who died in 1787.
The continuation was afterwards intrusted to Professor Vahl,
and at present 20 numbers are published; consequently 120@
Baars with the figures of Danish plants,

Pa Nicolaus

452 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Nicolaus Laurentius Burmann, who lately died,
Professor of Botany at Amsterdam, was son of John
Burmann. He used the great collection which his
father left, entirely for the benefit of the science, and
published part of it, according to the arrangement of
Linne, his great master *.

John Anton Scopoli, was born at Fleimsthal in
Tyrol, 1722. Almost without any instruction he
became by his own diligence a very great man, and
an acute observer of nature. He was first physician
at Idria, went afterwards to Schemnitz in Hungary
as Professor, and lastly to Pavia, where he died
May 3, 1788. By too frequent a use of the micro-
scope, a year before his death he lost his sight. It is
siugular, that a man whose whole life was a series, Asi
it were, of misfortunes, should have done so much f.

Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber, born 1739,
a pupil of Linné, President of the Imperial academy,
and Professor at Erlangen. One of the first bota-
nists, whose great merits are universally acknow-
ledged. His writings bear the mark of mature re-
flection and just observation {.

* N. L. Burmanni Flora Indica. Lugd. 1768. 4to. with 67
plates, which represent 176 very scarce plants.

¢ Joh. Ant. Scopoli Flora Carniolica. Tom. I. II. Vindb.
1772. 8vo. with 65 plates.

Ejusd. Deliciae Flore et Faunz Insubrice. Tom. I. II. et
UI. Ticini 1786. fol. with 75 plates. An elegant work, of
which only a few copies were printed.

t J. C. D. Schreberi Spicilegium Flore Lipsiensis. Lipsiz
1771. 8Vo

Nicoleus

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 453

Nicolaus Joseph von Jacquin was born in the Ne-
therlands. He made a voyage, at the expence of the
Emperor Francis I. to the West Indies, became
afterwards Professor at Schemnitz, whence he went
in the same quality to Vienna. ‘This botanist, who
is still living, has done much for the progress of the
science, and we have in fact from him most of the
new discoveries in botany. His works are unior-
tunately too expensive }.

Jacob Christian Schaeffer, a clergyman at Ratis-
bon, should not be passed unmentioned, as he was
the first who published coloured prints of fungi. For
German botanists his work is classical, particularly
with respect to the larger species *.

Charles Linné, the son, was born at Upsal, Janu-
ary 20,1741. In his nineteenth year he became de-

EAS monstrator

Ejusd. Beschreibung der Graeser (Description of the Gra-
mina.) Vol. I. and II. Edit. rst—3zd. Leipzig, 1769—8o.
fol. with 4o coloured plates. It is ‘a pity that the learned
author has not continued this work.

{ N. Jos. Jacquini Flora austriaca. Vol. I.—V. Vindobon.
1773-=78. fol. with 500 coloured plates. Very scarce.

Ejusd. Miscellanea austriaca. Vol. I. Il. Vindob. 1778—
1781. 4to. with 44 coloured plates.

Ejusd. Collectanea ad Botanicam, Chimiam et Historiam
Naturalem. Vol. J.—V. Vindob. 1786—96. 4to. with 106
coloured plates.

Ejusd. Icones plantarum rariorum. Vol. I. III. Vindob
1781---1793. fol. with 648 coloured plates.

Ejusd. Plantarum rariorum horti Cesarzei Schoenbrunnensis
descriptiones et icones. Vol. I. II. Vindob. 1797. fol. with
250 coloured plates.

* Dr Jac. Christian Schaeffer fungorum qui in Bavaria et

Palitinatu

454: PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

monstrator of botany, got, after his father died, the
botanical professorship, and died November 1, 1783.
He had great botanical knowledge, but did not equal
his father {. |

Peter Jonas Bergius, Professor of Natural History
-at Stockholm, celebrated for his investigations of
the Cape and of Surinam f.

Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin, Professor of Botany at
Petersburg, a nephew of the former, born in 1753.
He has given very accurate descriptions of sea
plants *.

Samuel George Gmelin, travelled through several
parts of Russia for the purposes of natural history.
He died in prison at the ‘Cham of the Chaitakkes,

Peter Simon Pallas, born at Berlin, went to Peters-
burg, and travelled at the expence of her Imperial
Majesty Catherine IL through the Asiatic provinces
of Russia. The result of these travels this great
philosopher has communicated to the world, likewise

Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur icones, nativis coloribus
express2e. Volk. I.--IV. Ratisb. 1762. 410. with 330 coloured
plates. The fourth volume contains the systematic description
of them all.

‘ -+Carla Linné Supplementum plantarum. Brunsw. 1781. 8vo.

t P. Jon. Bergii Plante capenses. Holm. AOU 8vo. with

5 plates,

* Sam. Gottl. Gmelin Historia fucorum. Petrop. 1768. 4to.
with 33 copper-plates.

|| Samuel George Gmelin Reisen durch Russland, (Travels
through Russia), Vol. I-III. Petersburg, 17701789. Ato,
with 18 plates.

&
‘
ak

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 455

at the expence of the Empress. It is to be wished
that the author may continue this elegant work {.

Johann Gerard Koenig from Curland, was an
apothecary, and afterwards studied under Linné.
He went afterwards to Copenhagen, from whence
he visited Iceland in 1765. After his return he ac-
companied the mission, as physician to’ Tranquebar,
in the East Indies in 1768. During this voyage. he
collected at the Cape of Good Hope many unknown
plants, and sent them to his instructor Linné. His
zeal for botany had no bounds, but his pecuniary
circumstances were not in his favour. He entered
as natural historian the service of the Nabob of
Arcot, from whom he got a better salary, which he
spent entirely in his various investigations. But still,
though in better circumstances, finding that his in-
come would not suffice for the execution of his ex-
tensive plans, he petitioned the Directory of Madras
for an additional salary, which was granted. He
died June 26, 1785, without having all his discove-
ries published. Single treatises of his are mserted
in different periodical publications, and in the third
number of Retzii Observationes Botanice, we have
his masterly descriptions of all the Monandrize of the
East Indies; and in the sixth number an enumera-
tion and description of all the Indian species of Epi-
dendron.

_ ~ P.S. Pallasii Flora Rossica. Tom. I. Pars. 1. 2. Petro.
fol. 1784. 1788. fol. with too coloured plates. The text has
_heen separately printed in 8vo.

F 4. Christian

ASO PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

Christian Friis Rottbéll, who died in 1797, Pro-
fessor of Botany at Copenhagen, has described a —
great many foreign plants. His chief merit 1s the |
description of several exotic species of gramina *.

Fusée Aublet, a Frenchman, was an apothecary,
and went with a great deal of botanical knowledge to
Guyana in America. After having made there a
great many discoveries in botany, he went to the Isle
of France or Mauritius, and returned to France,
where he died some years ago f.

Johann Reinhold Forster, late Professor of Halle,
and his son George Forster, private counsellor and
librarian at Maynz, made a voyage round the world
with Captain Cook. Both philosophers have com-
municated to the world an account of the plants
which they discovered during their voyage {.

* Christiani Frius Rottbollii Descriptiones et icones Planta-
rum. Hafniae 1773. fol. with 21 plates. Animproved edition
appeared in 1786.

+ Fusée Aublet Histoire des Plantes de la Gujane Francoise.

Tom. I.—IV. Lond. et Paris. 1775. ato. with 392 plates.

{ Joh. Reinh. Forsteri Characteres Generum Plantarum,

quas in itinere ad insulas maris australis collegit. Lond. 1776.
Ato. with 7§ plates.

Georg. Forsteri Plantae esculentaeinsularum oceani australis.
Halae, 1786. 8vo.

Ejusc. Florulae insularnm australium prodromus. Goettingae.
x786. 8vo.

Conrad

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. * 457

Conrad Moench, Professor at Marburg, has fae
voured us with many excellent botanical observa-
tions *._ |

Bulliard died in 1796 as demonstrator of botany
at Paris; he wrote several treatises on the plants
which grow wild in the neighbourhood of Paris 5
and in his larger work described the rarest fungi f.

Chevalier Lamark, once an officer in the army,
afterwards member of the national institute at Paris,
has shewn himself, by the publication of a great bota-
nical work ft, a very expert botanist.

Andreas Johann Retzius, still living, and Professor.
of Botany at Lund in Sweden, was born October
3,1742. Weare indebted to him for several new
discovered plants by travellers, and for many impor-
tant observations |].

Charles Peter Thunberg, knight of the order of
Vasa, Professor at Upsal, is the son of a country

* C. Moench Enumeratio Plantarum indigenarum Hessiae
praesertim inferioris. Pars Prior. Casselis. 1777, 8vo. The
second part has never been published.

Ejusd. Verzeichniss auslaendischer Baume und Straeucher
des Lustschlosses Weissenstein bey Cassel. (Catalogue of fo-
reign trees and shrubs in the palace of Weissenstein near Cas-
sel). Frankf. and Leipz. 1785. 8vo. with 8 uncoloured plates.

Ejusd. Methodus Plantas horti Botanici et agri Marbur-
gensis a staminum situ describendi. Marburgi. 1794. 8vo-

+ Bullard, Herbier de la France, with many coloured plates.

{ Chevalier de Lamark Encyclopedie methodique. Tom. I.
II. III. Paris, 1783, 1784. gto. with numerous plates.

| And. Joh. Retzii Observationes Botanicae. Fasc. I. VI.
Lips. 1779.—1791, fol. with 19 plates.

3 curate

4.58 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

curate. He visited Holland and France, and went,
assisted by some friends in Holland, to the Cape of
Good Hope, Ceylon, Java, and Japan. ‘Thunberg
has written a great deal on several botanical subjects,
and we have sill more to expect from him. His
Flora Japonica is a model which deserves general
imitation T.

Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. and President of the Royal
Society in London, in company with his friend Dr
Solander, made the first voyage with Captain Cook
round the world. Sir Joseph is in possession of the —
largest herbarium and of the scarcest natural pro-
ductions in general. We expect from him an ele-
gant work on‘all the plants of the southern part of
India. ‘This great man is the patron of natural his-
tory in general {.

We must content ourselves with mentioning the
names only of some other epee botanists who

would

+ C. P. Thunberg Flora ees Lipsiae. 1784. 8vo. with -
39 plates.

Ejusd. Icones Piantarum Japonicarum, Une: 1794. fol.
Only ro plates have appeared uncoloured.

Ejusd. Prodromus Plantarum capensium pars prior. Upsaliae,
1794. 8vo. with three plates. This first part contains the
short characters of all the plants which he discovered at the
Cape of Good Hope, up to the tenth class of Linné.—The
complete Flora Capensis is to be published soon, which will
be a gratification to many, who wait for it with anxiety.

{ Josephi Banks Reliquiae Houstonianae. Londini, 178r.

Ato. with 26 plates.
Ejusd.

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 45

would deserve a more particular account, were our
limits not so narrow. ‘They are, Miller, Ludwig,
Ammann, Van Royen, Seguier, Sauvages, Gessner,
Steller, Gerber, Georgi, Guettard, Messerschmidt,
Kalm, Hasselquist, Osbeck, Loeffling, Vandelli,
Forskoel, Adanson, Schmiedel, Hudson, Lightfoot,
Gouan, Necker, Weigel, Murray, Commerson,
Sparrmann, Wulifen, Leers, Cranz, Medicus, Pol-
lich, Weber, Asso, and many others.

§ 377.
EIGHTH EPOCH.
From Hepwice till our present time.
Or from 1782 to 1805.

Though Linné arranged all the productions of
nature, and in the vegetable kingdom observed de-
cidedly the sexes of plants, yet he had not succeeded
in discovering the sex and the sexual organs in the
cryptogamie. Hedwig alone is so fortunate. To
him we are indebted for a better knowledge of the
cryptogamiz and an entire reform in this important |
branch of botany. Many men of merit undertake
tedious and dangerous journeys through the most
distant regions of our globe, and by them we expect
to get acquainted with scarce and unknown natural
productions. ‘This whole century may, with regard

to

Ejusd. Icones selectae Plantarum, quas in Japonia collegit
et delineavit Engelbertus Kaempfer ex Archetypis in Museo
Britannico asservatis. Lond. 1791. fol. Contains 59 unco-
loured plates, left by Kaempier, with systematic descriptions.

460 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

to natural history, justly be called the century of
discovery. It must however be admitted, that, did
philosophers really wish te make their writings more
generally useful, they would make their works less
expensive, and not give us repeatedly copied plates,
which only render the study less attainable. Besides,
we are so unfortunate since Linné’s death to get new
plants under different names, and to see new names
given to plants already known. Should this anarchy
become prevalent in botany, we must expect to see
again the old times, where each author gave to his
plant the name he fancied to be the best.

Johann Hedwig, Professor of Botany at Leipzig,
born at Cronstaedt in Transylvania, Oct. 8, 1736;
studied medicine at Presburg in Hungary, and died
Feb, 7, 1799, at the age of 69 years. He discovered
by means of an extremely high magnifying micro-
scope, that those parts in mosses, which Linné took
for female flowers, were male flowers, and that those
which were thought to be the male flowers were
seed capsules only. His discoveries relate likewise
to the filices, algze, and fungi *.

* Johannis Hedwigit Fundamentum Historie Naturalis
muscorum frondosorum. Pars I. 11. Lipsiee, 1782, with 20 plates.

Kjusd. Theoria generationis et fructificationis plantarum
cryptogamicarum. Petropol. 1784. 4to. with 37 coloured plates.
In 1798 a new, corrected, and much enlarged edition of this
work was published. |

Ejusd. Descriptio et Adumbratio muscorum frondosorum.
Tom. I.—IV. Lips. 1787-1797, with 160 neatly coloured
plates. Not continued,

Jonas

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 464

Jonas Dryander, a Swede by birth, who lives with
Sir Joseph Banks; a very profound botanist, who
by some single treatises has gained much reputation.
The description of Sir Joseph Banks’s library, which
he has published, shews his great knowledge *.

Charles Louis l’Heritier de Brutelle, formerly
member of the National Institute at Paris, has made
himself known by the descriptions of several new
plants. He has especially described many Peruvian
plants, discovered by Dombey during his travels.
His works are rather of too large a size, and on ac-
count of the many elegant plates very expensivet.

George

A posthumous work on mosses, containing their general
history, has been since published by Dr Hedwig’s favourite
pupil, Dr F. Schwaegrichen of Leipzig. Itis Hedwig’s Species
Muscorum, with his own drawings ; and his son and successor
in the botanical chair has published some others. T.

* Catalogus Bibliothecee Historico-Naturalis Josephi Banks,
auctore Jona Dryander. Tom. III. 1797—98. The third
volume contains the botanical works, which the author has
arranged in a particular order. But what renders this work
indispensibly necessary for every botanist is this, that all the
known and new plants which botanists have described in pe-
riodical works, or in the publications of academies and learned
societies, are enumerated there, according to Linné’s system.

4+ C. L. VHeritier, Cornus. Paristis. 1788. fol. with plates.

Ejusd. Sertum Anglicum. Paris. 1788. fol. with many
plates. Not yet finished.

Ejusd. Stirpes novae, Fasc. I,---Vl. 1784---1789. with 84
neat uncoloured plates. Continued.

Ejusd. Geraniologia seu Erodii, Pelargonii, Geranii, Mon-
soniae et Grieli historia, iconibus illustrata. Parisiis. 14787.
fol. Only 44 plates without text have hitherto appeared. He

has

462 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

George Franz. Hoffmann, born in Bavaria, was
Professor at Erlangen, but went 1792 to Goettingen,
as Professor of Botany. He has, by descriptions
and drawings, pretty well explained some extensive
not yet properly fixed genera* |

Anton. Joseph Cavanilles, born at Valencia ; ; an
abbé who lived with the Spanish ambassador at
Paris, but now resides at Madrid, and. has several
times travelled through Spain. He has deserved
well of botanists, by having described and accu-
rately discriminated the Monodelphiae. He intends
now, in a particular work, to describe the plants in
the botanical garden at Madrid, and some new plants
of Spainy.

has promised an accurate description of the genus Solanum,
and to publish Dombey’s flora Peruviana.

* Georgii Francisci Hoffmanni Enumeratio Lichenum.
Fasc. I---IV. Erlangae. 1784. 4to. with many plates. It
1S a pity it is not continued.

Ejusd. Historia Salicum. Tom. I. Lips. 1785. fol. with
24 plates. ‘This work is not finished, though it is much to be
wished that the author may continue it.

Ejusd. Plantae Lichenosae. Tom. I---III. Lipsiae. 1790--- .

1796. fol. Each volume has 24 elegantly coloured plates,
and it is to be continued. This work is very useful to the
botanist, only the generic names are not very accurate.

{+ Ant. Joseph Cavanilles Monadelphiae Classis Disserta-
tiones decem. Matriti. 1790. 4to. with 296 elegant plates.

Ejusd. Icones plantarum. Vol. I---III. Matriti. 1791---
1794. fol. Each volume contains 100 uncoloured plates,
neatly engraved; with the 4th volume the whole will be con-
cluded. It contains a great treasure of New Mexican and Spa-
nish plants.

3 | ~. Johann,

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE.. 463 —

Johann. Jacob Roemer, and Paulus Usteri, two
physicians at Zurich, have published journals of
botany, in which many discoveries are collected, and
by which botany has gained many admirers and
friends. In the beginning they published this jour-
nal both together*, afterwards each a separate one.

Joseph Gaertner, physician at Kalve near Stuttgard,
died in 1791. His particular merits consist in an
accurate inquiry into the nature of seeds. His work
is most useful, as it fills up a large empty space in
the physiology of these organsf.

Olof Swartz, now Professor at Stockholm, re-
sided from 1783 till 1787 in the West Indies,
where, though Browne, Sloane, Plumier, Aublet,
Jacquin, and some others had before him visited
these countries, he still discovered many plants en-
tirely unknown. He has made these discoveries
known, and thus has contributed to the better know-

* Magazinder Botanik, herausgegeben vong J. J. Roemer
und P. Usteri. I.---[V. Band Zuerch. 1787---1790. 8vo.
(Botanical Magazine, published by J. J. Roemer and P.
Usteri).

Dr. Usteri afterwards published, Annalen der Botanik. (An-
nals of Botany) 1---2. Vol. Zuerch. 1792, 1793. 8vo.

Neue ‘Annalen der Botanik (New Annals) No 1---16.
Zuerch. 1794---1797, 8vo. ‘This last journal is still conti-
nued, and contains many interesting articles.

Dr Roemer has begun a new journal, remarkable for its ele-
gance, aud the good choice of communications, viz.

Archiv fir die Botanik, 1--3 Stuck, (Magazine for Botany,
No. 1---3), Leipzig. 1796---1798. 4to.

+ Josephi Gaertneri de fructibus et seminibus plantarum,
vol. I. II. Stuttgard, 1788---1791. 4to. with 180 neat plates.

ledge

4:04 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

ledge of plants. The Cryptogamiae especially, have
gained much by. his discoveries*. :
James Edward Smith, physician at Norwich, and:
President of the London Linnean Society, was for-
tunate enough to purchase the whole Linnean her-
barium. It could not have come into better hands,
for from it he has characterised more accurately se-
veral scarce and but imperfectly known plants, and
by publishing descriptions of many new plants, espe-
cially of New Holland, and fixing the genera in the
filices on more solid foundations, he has gained ever-
lasting fame. His writings are of great value to
the botanistT.
William

* Olof Swartz nova genera et species plantarum seu Prod-
romus descriptionum vegetabilium maximam partem incogni-
torum, quae sub itinere in Indiam occidentalem digessit. Hol-
miae. 1788. 8vo. a

Ejusd. Observationes botanicae, Erlangae. 1791. with 1%
plates. |

It appears but just. to observe, that Mr Swartz saw the
greatest part of the plants described in his Prodromus first in
Sir Joseph Banks’s collection. They were, at least 12 years be-
fore Mr Swartz wrote this work, collected and sent to Sir
Joseph by Dr Wright, now in Edinburgh. T.

Ejusd. Icones plantarum incognitarum quas, in India occi-
dentali detexit atque delineavit. Fasc. I. Erlang. 1794. Only
six neatly coloured plates have been published.

Kjusd. Flora Indiae occidentalis aucta atque illustrata, sive
descriptiones plantarum in prodromo recensitarum. Yom. I. IT.
Erlangae. 1797, 1798. Continued. The first volume con-
tains I5 neat plates representing the anatomy of the new
genera. :

f¢ Jacobi Edward Smith Plantarum icones hactenus in-

editae,

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 4.65

William Aiton, inspeector of the royal botanic

garden at Kew near London; died 1794. An ex-
cellent observer, who has presented us with an ele-
gant description of the plants in the garden at
Kew*. :
Johann. de Loureiro, a Portuguese, went as
missionary to Cochinchina, but as he could
not, without medicine, succeed in his plans, he
studied the productions of the vegetable kingdom.
After a residence there of about 30 years, he went
with a Portuguese ship to Mozambique, and finally —
returned to Portugal. We have from him a valu-
able work on the plants which he met with during
his journey t. |

Jacob Julian la Billardiere, physician at Paris, in-
tended, after he had travelled through the moun-
tains of Dauphiny and Savoy, to undertake a bo-
tanical journey, under the patronage of the minister

editae. Londin. Fasc. I. II. III. 1789---1791. fol. with 75
good plates.

Ejusd. Icones pictae plantarum rariorum. Fasc. I---III.
Lond.“ 1790---91---93. An expensive work. Each fascicle
has 6 well coloured plates.

Ejusd. Specimen of the Botany of New Holland, vol. I.
Fasc. I. TV. Lond. 1793. gto. 1794. Each fascicle contains
four neatly coloured plates.

* Hortus Kewensis, or a catalogue tof the plants cultivated
in the royal botanic garden at Kew, by William Aiton. . Vol.
J. 11. IIT. London. 1789. 8vo. with a few very good plates.
A. new edition of this useful work is expected.

_ F Joannis de Loureiro Flora Cochinchinensis. Tom. I. &
If. Ullissipone. 1790. I have myself published an edition
of it in 8yo. in 1798, by Spener, with notes.

Gg Pitty

$

AGG PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, BYR,

de Vergennes, through Asia Minor as far as thé
Caspian Sea. He left Marseilles, November 19,
1786, and arrived in Syria, in February, 1787..
The plague, however, which then raged in those
countries which he intended to visit, obliged him to
alter his plan, and to confine himself to Syria only.
Fifty or sixty new discovered plants he has begun.
in a masterly manner to describe in a particular
work *. ) ;

Martin Vahl, Professor at Copenhagen, has tra-
velled through the greatest part-of Europe, and
North Africa. The Arabic plants of Forskool, as
well.as those of the West Indies, which his friends
Rohr, Ryan, and West collected, many East Indian
plants, and a great many discovered by himself, are
communicated to us in his writings]. Vahl has
shewn himself one of the greatest botanists of the age.

Frederic Stephan, Professor and Counsellor at
Moscow, born at Leipzig, has published a Flora of
Moscow, and he has promised an elegant work on
new Asiatic plants{.

* J. J. Billardiere, M. D. Icones plantarum rariorum Syriae
descriptionibus et observationibus ilustratae. Parisiis. Decas I.
1791, Decas Il. 1791, ato. The plates and descriptions are
excellent. It isa. pity that no more has been published.

+ Martini Vahl Symbolae plantarum. Pars I.---III. Haf-
niaé, 1790---1794. fol. Each volume has 25 plates; all three,
therefore, 75.

Ejusd. Eclogae botanicae. Fascicul. 1. Hain. 1796. fol.
with 10 plates.

{ F. Stephan ‘enumeratio stirpium agri Mosquensis. Mos-
qiiaes 1762. 8vo. 7)”

Ejusd. Icones plantarum Mosquensium. Decas I. Mosquae.

1495. fol.

HISTORY OF, THE SCIENCE. 467

Frederick Alexander von Humboldt, chief coun.
sellorof mines in Prussia, born at Berlin, hasmuch con
tributed to the knowledge of subterraneous plants *.
Physiology, especially the physiology of plants,
owes to him a great many important discoveries
and explanations. His unwearied zeal for science
makes us hope fora great many excellent communica-
tlons in consequence of his extensive travels:

Christian Conrad Sprengel, once rector at Span-
dau, now a private gentleman at Berlin, discovered,
after’ many tedious examinations and observations,
the true manner in which nature has provided for
the fecundation of plants. He has written a parti-
cular work on the subject, full of important. ob-
servationst.

Heinrich Adolph Schrader, Doctor of Medi-
cine at Goettingen, has besides dry cryptogamic
plants, of which he published collections, written se-
-veral works, which contain many very excellent ob-
servations {. © ~

William

_ * Florae Fribergensis specimen, edidit Fried. Alex. ab Hum-
boldt. Berolini. 1793. ato. with four neat, uncoloured plates,
representing 19 subterraneous plants.

+. Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau und in der
Befruchtung der Blumen, von C. oF Sprengel. (The secrets of
nature in the structure and fecundation of flowers, by C. C.
Sprengel): Berlin: 1793. 4to. with 14 plates, which contain
2 great number of neat figures crowded together.

f Spicilegium Florae Germanicae Auctore H. A. Schrader,
Hantiov. 1794. in 8vo. with 4 plates, which represent various
cryptogamic plants, and the seeds of some spécies of Galium.

| | Ejusd.
Gg 12

468 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

William Roxburgh, an Englishman by birth,
now physician at Samulcottah on the coast of Co-
. romandel, has, by the advice of Dr Russel at Ma-
dras, and at the expence of the East India Com-
pany, under Sir Joseph Bank’s direction, begun to
publish an elegant but very expensive work, on the
useful plants of India*.

Johann Christoph Wendland, born at finda
and overseer of the gardens at Herrnhausen, near
Hanover, has made many important and interesting
experiments and discoveries on the great number of
plants which are cultivated there. Those he has
communicated to the world in several treatises, espe-

cially in his greater works f.
Cade Per-

Ejusd. Nova genera plantarum, pars prima. Lipsiae. 1797.
fol. with 6 elegantly Hluminated plates. It contains seme
species of fungi.

* Plants of the coast of Coromandel, selected from draw-
ings and descriptions presented tothe Hon. Court of Directors
of the East India Company, by William Roxburgh, M.D.
Vol. I. London. 1795. in large folio. Only 3 numbers have
appeared, each with 25 beautiful plates, drawn very faithfully
after nature. Many new Indian plants are delineated, very
well dissected and described in English.

+ Sertum Hanoveranum, seu plantae rariores quae in hortis
Hanoverae vicinis coluntur, descriptae ab H. A. Schrader, deli-
neata’ et sculptae a J. C. Wendland. Goettingae. 1795,
fol. maj. Mr Wendland published this work in the begin-
ning with Mr Schrader, and three numbers of it have appear-
ed. The 4th is published by Mr Wendland alone. ‘The draw-
ings and plates are done by this gentleman himself, in the first
numbers the descriptions and the original observations are like-
wise his work, andthe last number is entirely his own. This work

3 : is

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 4.69

C. H. Persoon, born at the Cape of Good Hope,
now residing at Goeitingen, has paid particular at-
tention to the study of fune1, and is one of our first
mycologists. Several of his treatises which contri-
bute much to the elucidation of his subject, are in-
serted in Usteri’s annals. One particularly im-
portant is separately printed*. He has promised a
larger work on the fungi. |

Francis Masson, a gardener and zealous botanist.
The king of Great Britain sent him in 1772 to the
Cape of Good Hope to collect plants for the botanic
garden at Kew. He remained there two years and
a half. After his return he made several botanical
journeys to the warmer climates at the expence of
the emperor of Germany, and of the kings of France
and Spain. He was sent a second, time at the ex-
pence of England in 1786, to the Cape of Good
Hope, where he remained ten years, and during this
long time he made more discoveries than the first

| i time,

as now finished, but it will be continued by Mr Wendland
alone under the title, Hortus Herrenhusanus. It contains 24
plates, prettily coloured, of new and little known plants.
Botanische Beobachtungen nebst einigen neuen Gattungen
und Arten von J.C. Wendland. (Botanical observations, with
a few new genera and species), Hanover, 1798. fol. with 4
coloured plates, whic contain very distinct representations of

33 dissected plants.

Hijusd. Ericarum icones et descriptiones. Fasc. I. Hano-
verae. 1795. 4to. ‘This fascicle contains drawings of 6 spe-
e [3s . ; s ° o .
cies of heath, very prettily coloured, with a description in
German, and their characters in Latin.

Observationes mycologicae, seu descriptiones tam novorum

quam

A470 PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY, ETC.

time, and more than any person before him had
done. He has published his discoveries* of several
mew species of Stapelia.

Samuel Elias Bridel was born November 28,
1763, at Crassier, a small village in the canton of
Bern. He went to Paris, and travelled through the
nountains of Switzerland to collect plants, espe-
cially mosses. Mr Bridel resides at present at Go-
tha in Saxony. We are indebted to him for a com-
plete history of the musci frondosi, which he still con-
ane ‘lie

EKugenius Johann Ghiictonh Esper, Professor at
paMBeN. was born at Wundsiedel, June 25, 1742
Fis merit is very great in Zoology and Entomology,
as appears by his writings on the Papiliones of Hu-
rope, and on Zoophyta. He has commenced a com-

plete
quam Aub aetre fungorum, exhibitae a C. Hl. Persoon. Pars
prima. Lipsiae. 1796. 8vo. with 6 coloured plates.

* Stapeliae novae, or a collection of several new species of:
that genus discovered in the interior parts of Africa, by
Francis Messon. Lond. 1795+ fol. with 41 neatly coloured
plates. Each plate contains a new species. During his tra-
vels in the interior of Africa he took up those succulent
plants out of the soil with their root, and cultivated them in
his garden at Cape Town, and thus. had an opportunity of
seeing many flowers which escape travellers who make hasty
jour neys over a country.

+} Muscologia recentiorum s. Analysis, historia, et descriptio,
methodica omnium muscorum frondosorum hucusque cognitor-
um, ad normam Hedwigii, aS. E. Bridel. Gothae. ‘Tom I.
1797. Il. Pars I. 1798. 4. . The first volume contains the his-
tory of the musci frondosi, the discovery of the order, of the
genera, and their varieties. The first part of the second vo-
lume.

HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 4.71

plete work on sea-plants or Fuci*, and is in this
epoch the first German who has written on this dit- -
ficult genus. However Esper only collects the
known species, and does not examine what 1s stull
unknown, their organs of generation. )

As the narrow limits of a sketch, do not ant
us to introduce a complete history of boiany, we
shall give the names only of some other ce ted
botanists. They are, Acharius, Atzelius, Baum-
garten, Bellardi, Bolton, Bose, Gels, Curtis, Cyrillo,
Dahl, Danaa, Desfontaines, tiene ee Dick-
son, Dombey, Ehrhart, Euphrasen, Fahiberg, l’roch-
lich, Funk, Geuns, Goodenough, Haenke, Hellenius,
Holmskiold, Hoppe, Hornstaedt, Host, Isert, Jusstnu,
Lambert, La Peyrouse, Liljeblad, Lumnitzer, Mar-
tyn, Mutis, Nocca, Panzer, Patterson, Pavon, Poiret,
Rohr, Roth, Ruitz, Ryan, Salisbury, Schmidt,
Schousboe, Schrank, Schumacher, Sowerby, Thouin,
Timm, Ucria, Villars, Walter, West, Wiborg, Wil-
lemet, Woodward, Zuccagni, and many others.

lume describes the species of the first genera. Of six uncolour-
ed plates four represent the genera, of the musci, and two some
new species.

* Tcones fucorum, s. Abildungen der Tange, published |
by E. J. C. Esper Nuernberg. 1797. 4to. ‘Two. fascicles
have only appeared with 63 coloured plates, containing the
description of the represented species. It would have been °
better, had some of the figures been drawn with more-.accuracy
qnd ina less coarse manner.

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EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

FIG. 1 e

PLATE I.

The leaf of the Pelargonium peltatum is peltated,
p. 42. and pentangular, p. 30.

The leaf of the Orange, Citrus Aurantium, is 0-
vate, p. 28. quite entire, p. $1. and has a wing-
ed footstalk, p. 24.

Lichen stellaris is an Alga, p. 130. with a stel-

lated frons, p. 45. and seutellee, p. 116. in the
middle.

. Agaricus conspurcatus is a Fungus, p. 130. the

stipes is annulated, p. 25. the annulus is sessile,
p. 55. the pileus umbonated, p. 5. and squar-
rose, p. 54.

A. granulated root, p. 14. of the Saxifraga granu-
lata.

Octospora, a small fungus, p. 130. with a naked
stipes, p. 25. and a concave pileus, p. 54.

Lycoperdon stellatum, a fungus with a stellated

_volva, p. 53. of a spherical figure, p. 56. and

ciliated orifice.

The leaf of the Spiraea Filipendula, is interrupt-
edly pinnate, p. 37; the pinnula, p. 44. is lan-

ceolate, and unequally dentated.

The scapus of the Equisetum arvense. This plant
belongs to the Filices spiciferee, p, 131.

10

f

FIG. 10.

it.

12,

¥3.

14.

7 15.

i6.
ay
18.
19.
20.

Ql.

ch

4:7 4:

The flower of the Equisetum much magnified,
shewing four anthere, anda style without a
stigma. cae

The spike of the Equisetum consists of numeroug

peltated hexangular receptacles, raised on a
footstalk. One of these receptacles is here

much magnified, to which the horn-shaped

indusia, p. 57. are attached, containing the
flower exhibited in the former figure.

The root of the Spirzea Filipendula, which is tu,
berous and pendulous, p. 14.
The root of the Ophrys coraliorhiza is dentated,

p. 15. :

Celastrus buxifolius has a flexuose stem, p. 19;
thorns, p. 61; obovate leaves, p. 44. which
stand in bundles, p. 41.

The Polypodium vulgare is a Filix which bears
its flower and seed on the back of the frons,
filix epiphyllosperma, p. 131; the root is ho-
rizontal, p. 18; the frons is circinated, p. 59.
and pinnatifid.

A palmated root, p. 15. of the Orchis latzfolia.

A tunicated bulb, p. 60. of Allium Cepa.

A testiculated root, p. 15. of Orchis mascula.

The scaly bulb, p. 60. of Lilium bulbiferum.

Sida hederaefolia has a sarmentose stem, p. 19.
heart-shaped leaves, p. 22. whieh are repand,
p. 32. petiolated, p.42. and pallaceous, ibid.
The flowerstalk is radical, p. 23. the perianth
is simple, p. 78. the corolla is mallow-like, p.
_83. the filaments are connate, p. 92.

The bundled root, p. 15. of Ophrys Nidus avis,

PLATE

PLATE. MW.

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23%

24.

29»

AG 5

PLATE II.

A rhombie leaf, p. 29. of Hibiscus rhombifolius.

Malva tridactylites has a trifid leaf, p. 27. a one
flowered peduncle, p. 23. a double perianth,
p. 75. a malvaceous corolla, p. 83. and be-
longs to the 16th class of Linneeus, viz. Mo-
nadelphia, p. 147.

A pandureeform leaf, p. 29. of Euphorbia cya-
thophora.

Banisteria ‘purpurea has a twining stem turning
from the right to the left, p. 19. opposite
leaves, p. 40. which are elliptic, p. 28. and
bear a corymbus, p. 79.

Part of a straw, p. 22. with a i ond at the
base a strap, p. 51. |

The Passiflora tliefolia has a round stem, p. 20.
a heart-shaped leaf, p. 27. double stipulee, p.
A7, an axillary tendril, p. 57. a one-flowered
peduncle, p. 23. a polvpetalous corolla, p. $1.
nectaria which consist of straight threads, p.
87. and a pedicelled genrmen, p. 96.

Nepenthes destillatoria has'a lanceolate leaf, p.
29. which bears a pedicelled ascidium, p. 51.

A four-cornered stem, p. 21. with, with stellate

leaves, p. 41. which stand six together, bid.
and are lmear, p. 29.

A vetch with leaves alternately pinnate, p. 37.
the pinnule, p. 44. are mucronated, p. 26.

the flowers stand in a racemus, p. 69. the co-
rolla is papilionaceous, p. 83.

An ovate leaf, p. 28. which is emarginated, p.
Dae Ws

The Humulus lupulus has a stem which twines
from the left to the right, p. 19. opposite

leaves

476

RIG. 32. leaves, p. 40. tri-lobed, Ps 30. and toothed,
Pp. 32.

PLATE IIr.

33. The spike, p. 67. of the Orchis latifolia, having
floral leaves, p. 485 the germen is below, p.
101; the corolla is orchideous, p. 84.

34. The panicle, p. 72. of the Poa trividlis.

35. The leaf of the Lacis Sluviatilis, which is laci-
niate, p> 30. and curled, p. 33.

36. A compound Umbel, p. 70. with an universal in-

volucrum, p. 52. and a partial one.

37. The Catkin, p. 73. of the Hazel, covered with
scales, p. 79. .

38. Bupleurum rotundifolium, with a perolee stem
and leaf, p. 20; it has a depauperate umbel,
p. 71. and a pentaphyllous involucrum, p. 52.

39. The Scolopendrium vulgare, with a dedaleous

leaf, p. 27. belongs to the Filices epiphylo-

spermee, p. 131.

40. The filiform receptacle, p. 127. of the Hazel.

Ai. The flower of the Arum maculatwm, with an
univalve spatha, p. 49. in the centre of which
stands the spadix, p. 72.

42, The Spadix of the foregoing flower, with female
flowers below, and male flowers above.

43. The Cyme, p. 71. of the Viburnum Opulus, hav-
ing large neuter flowers, p. 216. at the extre-
mities.

44, pagittaria, sagittifolia has arrow- haga leaves,
p. 28. a channelled leaf-stalk, p. 24. and a
three sided stalk (scapus), p. 23. The flowers

stanp

* 2 ike at)
ake }
Beh er

WMG (aaa
i \\\y 1A \ ( A YZ ¢ y
= (oN 0 Auer

\\
Ms)
x

51

4 iy

WON

SAX

Y

\\

YL
KS

R
S

\

PLATE. IV.

By

Wie. 44.

40.

47,

48.

49.

50.

4:77

stand in whirls, p. 65. and are tripetalous, p.
83.

PHATE) LV.

A stamen of the Digitalis purpurea, the filament,
p. 92. is incurved, p. 93. the anther doubled,
p- 94.

The pistil of the Turnera frutescens. The ger-
men is oblong and trisulcated, with three styles
which are multifid, p. 97. |

A stamen of the same, the filament of which is
dilated, p. 92. and its anther cordated.

A stamen with a compressed cordate filament,
p. 92. and erect anther, p. 95.

The flower of the Antirrhinum Orontiwm, has
a personate corolla, p. 82. with a spur at the
bottom, p. 89. .

The whole flower of the Teucrium fruticans has
has an unilabiate corolla, p. 82. the filaments
are filiform, p. 92. turning up (adscendentia),
the style fililiform, p. 97. and the stigma bi-
fid, p. 99. The flower belongs to the class
Didynamia.

The Corolla of the foregoing flower is monope-
talous, p. 81. and has only the under-lip, p.
Beau |

The flower of the Philadelphus coronarius, with
a four petalled corolla, p. 83.

The monophyllous quadrifid perianth, p. 75. of
the foregoing flower. As the stamina are nu-
merous, and inserted in the calyx, the plant
belongs to the class Icosandria.

The pistil of the same flower.

58.

60.

478

A stamen with a compresseds filament and fae
cumbent anther, P. 95. which is moveable;
ibid.

A malvaceous corolla, p. $3. with connate fila-
ments, p. 92. |

The double perianth, p. 75. of the same flower,
in the centre of which is seen the united fila-
ments.

The stamina of the Carolinea princeps, the fila-
ments of which are connected below, but a-
bove stand free ; in this figure the most of the
filaments are cut away, leaving’ one to shew
that it is branched, p. 93. The anthera is |
round and upright.

The flower of the Centaurea Cyanus is com-
pound, p. 86. and enclosed in a common peri-

-anthium, p. 77. which is imbricated and turbi-
nated, p. 78.

A floret taken from the disc of the foregoing
flower ; it is tubular, p. 81. and the germen is
crowned with a pappus, p. 79.

A floret from the radius of the same flower;
which is difform, p. 82.

The flower of the Campanula rotundifolia, with

a five-parted perianth, p. 75. and a ee
corolla, p. 81.

The stamen of a Vaccinium has a filiform fila
ment and an awned anther, p. 94.

The stamen of the Yew-tree, with a peltated and
dentated anther, p. 04.

The stamen of a Lamium, with an incumbent
anther, which is hairy, p. 94.

The Galanthus nivalis has a one-flowered spatha,
p. 50. a liliaceous, three-petalled corolla, p. 83.
a triphyllous crown, p. 90. and a germen in] |
ferum, p. 101, |

Ovi

Fic. 67.

68.

69.
70.

file

Sl.

4:79

A stamen with an awl-shaped filament, p. 92.
and an erect, p. 95. arrow-shaped, p. 94. an-
ther. |

A stamen of the Glechoma hederaced, with 9
kidney-shaped anther, p. 93. which is lateral,
p. 95.

A stamen with an adnate anther, p. 95.

The pistil of the Iris germanica has an oblong
sulcated germen, a filiform style, p. 97. with
three stigmata, which are petal-like, p. 99.

The flower of the same, with a germen inferum,
p- 101. a one-petalled, liliaceous six-parted co-
rolla; three of the segments are erect, and
three are bent baek; on these last there is a
beard, p. 90.

The flower of the Salvia officinalis, with a rin-
gent corolla, p. 82.

The bilabiated perianthium of the same, p. 75.

The pistil of the same has four seeds, a filiform
style, and divided stigma.

The Bellis perennis has a compound flower, p.
86. it is a flos radiatus, p. 87. the centre is
called the disc, and the rim the ray.

The same flower seen from behind, to shew the
common hemispherical anthodium, p. 78.

A conical common receptacle, p. 126.

The flower of the Galium boreale seen sideways.

The wheel-shaped corolla of the same, p. 82. be-
longing to the class Tetrandria, p. 147.

A stamen of the Salvia officinalis, with a move-
able articulated filament, p. 93.

The flower of the Symphytum officinale slit up,
to shew the fornices, p. 90. under which the
stamina stand, and shew the plant to belong
to the class Pentandria. ;

The same flower hag a cup-shaped corolla, p. 81.

83.

Fic. 83.

34.

35.

ie)
©

90.

91.

92.
93,

94,

05.

480 goer

The flower of the Periploca gr@ca, with its pen-
tapetalous corolla, p. 83. and horn-like threads,
p- 90.

A ligulated corolla, p. 82. of the Hieracium syl-
vaticum ; the antheree are connate, p. 95.
which is the character of the class Syngenesia.

The compound flower of the same, consisting
wholly of ligulate florets. It is called a semi-
floscular flower, p. 86. and belongs to the or-
der of Polygamia eequalis. |

A tubular floret, p. 81. of the Carduus nutans.

The same opened longitudinally, to show the
character of the 19th class.

The flower of the Periploca sr@ca, without the
corolla and horn-shaped filaments. It is mere- —
ly the hood (cucullus, p. 89.) with the stamina
that are shown. |

The pistil of the same much magnified, the ger-
men double, the style simple, and the stigma
very large. ; |

A stamen of the same plant highly magnified,
with the beard, p. 90. |

A petal of the same bending outwards, with two
horn-shaped filaments.

The same with figure 90, only the anthers burst.

A many-flowered spicula, p. 67. of a grass, the

Festuca elation.

The three stamina, with the pistil and nectarium
of the same grass. The nectarium, p. 91. sur-
rounds the seed; the stigmata are plumose,
p. 99. the filaments capillary, p. 92. and the
antheree bifid, p. 94.

The corolla of the same grass with the pistil and
stamina ; the corolla is bivalve, p. 77.

The bivalve glume with the seed.

aad
vf bith ay t

‘ i,

Fic. 97.

98.

99.
100.
101.

102.

103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.

410.

ill.

112.

113.
114.

48 1

The same glume apart,’ by which we may see
that the valves, p. 77. are of unequal length.
The flower of the Stapelia hirsuta, diminished a-
bout a fifth part.

The two germens of the same flower.

The polyphyllous crown, p. 90. of the same.

A many-flowered spicula of the Bromus secali-
NUS.

The bivalve glume of the same.

The bivalve corolla, with an awn, p. 62.

The bivalve glume, with the zigzag rachis.

The papilionaceous corolla, p. 83. of a Vicia.

The vexillum of the same, p. 84.

The alee of the same, ib.

The carina of the same, 70.

The stamina of the same showing the character
of the class Diadelphia, p. 147.

PILATE Vic

The flower of the Lychnis /iscaria has a tubu-
lar perianthium, p. 76. a pink-like corolla, p.
83. and belongs to the class Decandria.

The petal, p. 80. of this plant has a long unguis,
p. 86. and a bidentated crown, p. 90.

The flower of the Cueullaria evcelsa much mag-
nified. It has an irregular corolla, p. 84. a
spur, p. 893; the antheree, p. 93. are attached
to the undermost petal, and the stigma, p. 98.
is club-shaped.

The same flower of its natural size.

The funnel-shaped corolla, p. 81. with a beard,
p- 70. of the Lasiostoma cirrhosa.

Hh 115.

Pic. 115.

‘116.

117,

118.

482

The flower of the Rupala montana, the stamina
of which stand on the tips of the petals.

Lacis fluviatilis has a simple flower, without
calyx or corolla. It is called a flos nudus,
p- 100. san

The flower of the Ascium coccineum, shewing
an ascidiform bractea on a footstalk, p. 51.-

The flower of the Matthiola scabra, with an
urceolated perianthium, p.. 76. and a cup-
shaped corolla, p. 81. which is crenated.

The flower of the Ruyschia Surwbea has a ses-
sile, bi-lobed, ascidiform bractea, p. 51.

The flower-bud of the same, without the ascidi-
form bractea,

The ascidiform bractea separated.

The flower opened.

The receptaculum placentiforme, p. 127. of the
Dorstenia cordzfolia, surrounded with flowers.

A single male flower of the same, p. 100.

A female flower, 7b.

The flower of the Dimorpha grandiflora, with
its singular corolla.

The male flower of one of ihe Musci frondosi,
with succulent filaments, p. 91. and the sta-
mina, p. 96. of which some disperse the pol-
len, others are not so far advanced, and some
have already shed their pollen.

A stamen of the Sphagnum palustre. |

The same in the act of throwing out the pollen.

A filament with three club-shaped succulent fila-
ments, of one of the Musci frondosi.

The hermaphrodite flower, of such another
‘Moss with pistillum and stamina.

The female flower of such a moss, without suc-
culent filaments. :

Another with succulent filaments,

PIG. 134.

135.

i36.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

145,

146.

147,

435

The flower of an Aconitum, with an irregular
corolla, p. 84.

The pedicelled cuculli or hoods, p, 89. of the
same, with stamina and pistillum.

The villous calyptra, p. 112. of the Polytrichum
commune.

The operculum, p. 112. of the same.

Bryum androgynum has a branched surculus,
p. 25; the male flowers rest upon footstalks,
and are capituliform, p. 73; the thecze, p.
112. stand upon long terminal setee, p. 25;
on one of them is seen ,a calyptra dimidiata,
p. 1125; another has an operculum, and one
wants it.

The Polytrichum commune has a simple surcu-
lus, p. 253 the theca is covered with a hairy
calyptra.

The bristle, p. 25. of this Moss, with the peri-
chaetium, p. 80. and the capsule without an
operculum.

The theea of the same Moss, with the opercu-
lum and apophysis, p. 114.

The same Moss, with male stellated flowers,
(flos disiformis) p. 74.

The flower of the Senecio vulgaris has a double
anthodium, p. 79.

The flower of the Sterculia crinita has a pedi-
celled germen, p. 76.’ ie
The flower of the Cheiranthus annuus has a

cross-like flower, p. 83. ;

The flower of a Narcissus, with a one-flowered

-spatha, p. 50. a lilaceous corolla, p, 83. and
a monophyllous crown, p. 90.

The petal of the Cheiranthus annuus, where
the expansion, p. 86. and the claw, 7). are —
seen,

inl Tay Ge 14a,

fic. 148.
149.

150.

153.

154.

434

The tetraphyllous perianth, p. 75..of this flower,
with the pistillum and a gland, p. 87. in the
bottom of the flower.

The style and the stamina of the same plant, to
shew that it belongs to the class Tetradyna-
mia. :

The flower of a Hypericum, having a rosaceous
corolla, p- 83. the filaments united in several
parcels, which is the character of the class
Polyadelphia. |

The pistillum of the same flower, with three
styles, § 140.

The flower of the Centaurea Verutum, having
a common thorny perianthium, p. 78. the
thorns are branched.

The flower of the Fuchsia excorticata, with a
funnel-shaped corolla, p. 81. a tetraphyllous
crown, p. 90. and a three-lobed stigma, Pp.
98. | |

The same flower cut open longitudinally, to
shew that it belongs to the class Octandria. |

PLATE VI.

The capsule, p. 103. of the Colchicum autum-
nale, cut over transversely. It is trilocular,
p. 104,

The same capsule opening at the apex, p. 105.
and having three valves, 104.

Two seeds of the Caucalis daucoides, which
are prickly.

A single seed of the same.

The fruit of the Magnolia grand Hone has the
appearance of a strobilus, p, 118. It con-

. . | i, sists

x

168

Talla + —r- -
ip G Vga Ni he Vip AN iN i II m 7
‘ ali 7 i } BNW PANY NAN Dos NN doa WY iT BIG NTN Lou ul ‘
aay (9 i iH} @ HN Hy i} @il i bg i 3\\ Vy I kph Ht Pi my N PAI WPAN za m
i H Hi fh i 1H ity IH BAIN p NY BAY i RNY BAIN) ARN O71 I AIRY PANN RA BP H
i id tr H} hdl RSA UN A Ih 4) i) i Uk P My LA Mi d); \ @ Hh @)): ii F =
SSS ATH 194

PLATE.VI.

SSSs

=SSs

Z
ZZ

oa
=

FA

LEZZ
Zz

LEZ
EZ

re

LZ

SZ

EE,

rad
SSPE

SssFs

Ss

LLLP To
SSSFS5
aoa

iN

mee
Sree

WS

iy
ae

<>
ig
=

ea

Sear,

Ss
<—S
S
=

if
WSS

ASSESS

ae
My

en

ae
4
Seas Nt

a

ra
mht

7
oe

Remy my niet

cnn ay

Fro. 159:

485

gists of unilocular bivalve capsules, p. 104:
that lie over one another. ‘The seeds have a
very long umbilical cord; p. 119. by which
they hang down, but they are surrounded by
a succulent artillus, p. 120.

Two seeds of the Tordylium syriacum; having:
a crenated margin.

The seed of the Tapsia villosa, with wings, p.
124: and ribs, 7b.

The winged fruit, (samara, p. 103.) of the Ul.
mus Americana. |

The same cut across, to shew the position of
the seed. |

The seed of the Clematis Vitalba, with its tail,
p. 123. |

A transverse section of the seed of the Adonis
vernalis. ,

A cluster of the utriculi, p. 102. of the same
seeds.

A linear capsule of the Epilobium miontanum.

A seed from this capsule, with the tuft, p. 123.

The same capsule burst, to shew the columella,
p. 104,

The folliculus, p: 103. of the Periploca oreca.

The kernel of the drupa of the Pterocarpa mon-
tana about 1-3d diminished:

The same drupa, p. 106. entire, likewise dimi-
nished.

A transverse section of the game drupa, to shew
the bilocular nut, p. 107.

The pod, (legumen, p. 110.) of the common
pea.

The same opened, to show the character of a
legumen:

The theca, p. 112. of the Polytrichum com-
mune much magnéed: on the under part is

‘ai the

Fic. 176.

1 Wikis
178.

179.

180.
isl.
182.

183.

184.

185.

186.

187.
188.

180.
190.
191.

192,
193.

486

the apophysis, p. 114. which is four-cornered,
with a peristoma, p. 113. haying 32 teeth,
closed by an epiphragma, p. 114.

The theca of the Tetraphis pellweida, having a
peristoma with four teeth.

The theca of the Gymnostomum, with a na-
ked peristoma, p. 113.

The theca of the Splachnum ampullaceum, with
a large apophysis, and a peristoma with eight
teeth. yay

A Grimmia, having a peristoma with sixteen
teeth.

A Neckera, with a double row of teeth at the
peristoma.

A Dicranum, with a peristoma having sixteen
bifid teeth, p. 113.

A Trichostomum, with the same sort of peristo-
ma, only the teeth are much more deeply di-
vided.

A. Barbula, with twisted teeth at the peristoma,
UA Gee

_A seed with a pappus supported on a footstall,

p- 1215 the pappus is plumose, p. 122.

A seed with a hairy pappus, p. 122. supported
on a footstalk.

A silicle, p. 109.

The partition, p. 103. of the same, with seeds
attached to it.

A seed with a sessile pappus, p. 121. which is
setaceous, ps 122.

A siliqua, p. 109. burst, so that the partition is
seen.

The same shut.

The loment, p. 111. of the Cassia Fistula.

The strobile, p. 116. of the Pinus picea, much

less than the natural size,
194,

LE
LEE

:
a
H
<
I

Fic. 194,

437

The loment of the Cassia Fistula opened, to
shew the character of it.

PLATE VII.

The flower of the Helleborus niger; it is rosa-
ceous, p. 83. ard belongs to the class Poly-
andria.

The nectarium of this flower, which is a cucul-
lus, p. 89.

The heart-shaped oblique leaf, p. 29. of the Be-
gonia nitida. The margin is undulated, p.
31. The veins are so divided that it is veno-

so-nerved, p. 34.

A venoso-neryed leaf, p. 34.

A leafy capitulum, p. 66. of the Gomphrena
globosa. |

A three-neryed leaf, p. 33.

A guintuple-nerved leaf, p. 34.

A septuple-nerved leaf, p. 34.

A crenated, p. $2. heart-shaped leaf, which is
seven-nerved, p. 34.

The entire drupa, p. 106. of the Nutmeg, My-
ristica moschata.

The common Acorn, which is a nut, p.. 105.

The nut of the Myristica moschata, surrounded
with what is called Mace, which is properly
a torn arillus, p. 120.

A folium triternatum, p. 36.

The Hovenia dulcis, with its flowerstaik, which
changes into a fleshy esculent receptacle, p,
125. |

The nut of the Myristica moschata, without
the arillus. | ?

Hh4 210.

Fic. 210.

Papanls
222.

993,

224.

488

The fruit of the Passiflora faetida, with its pe-
vianthium abiding, p. 74.

The nut of the Myristica cut across, to shew the -

kernel, p. 106.

The succulent fruit or pumpkin, p. 108. of the
Passiflora foetida, cut up longitudinally.

The strawberry, Fragaria vesca, having @
fleshy receptacle, p. 125. and bearing raked
seeds,

The fruit of the Cashew-nut tree, Anacardium
occidentale, with a pear-shaped fleshy recep-
tacle, p. 125. and a. nut, p. 105.

Gomphia Japotapita has a fleshy receptacle;
p. 125. bearing berries, p. 107.

Semicarpus 4Anacardiwm has a fleshy receptacle
and a nut.

The leaf of the Mimosa wnguis cati is a foliuna
bigeminatum, p. 35..

A flat receptacle, p. 125. which is punctured,
pe 127

The common fig has a closed receptacle, p. 127.

The same cut up longitudinally, to shew the

flowers. ,
A conical receptacle, p. 126.
A folium conjugato-pinnatum, p. 37.

PLATE VII;

The Boletus bovinus is a fungus, p. 130. with
a naked stipes, p. 25. a round pileus, p. 54.
and pores on the under surface, p. 56,

The Hydnum imbricatum, a fungus, with
prickles, p. 56. on the under surface of the
pileus.

The Agaricus integer, a fungus with lamelle,

p. 55. on the under side of the pileus.
2263

eee eee

PLATE VUL

’ ‘ t
aH Na

ORM Ry A
ae

Rss
Des VAS
AY Tay

1 C2) ear aM

bean iy)
ent , x
ae ap il

489

The Peltigera canina; an Alga, p. 130. ‘with 2
coriaceous frons, p. 45. and targets, p. 116.
The Jungermannia resupinata belongs to the
Musci hepatici, p. 131. and has a four-valved
capsule.

An Euphorbia, with verrucose leaves, p. 40.

The Berckheya cilzarts, with imbricated leaves,
p. 41. which are ciliated.

The Mesembryanthemum uncimatum, with a
hook-shaped leaf, p. 40.

The Mesembryanthemum deltoideum, with a
deltoid leaf, p. 40.

A scimetar-shaped leaf, p. 39.

An articulated stem, p. 21. :

A folium trigemimatum, p. 35. of the Mimosa
trigemina.

A halfround stem, p. 20.

A three-sided stem, p. 20.

A four-angled stem, p. 20.

A spatulate leaf, p. 29.

A jointedly pinnate leaf, p. 37. of the Fagara
Pterota.

A decursively pinnate leaf, p. 37. of the Melian-
thus major.

A doubly compound leaf, p. 38. of the Aegopo-
dium podagraria.

A folium runcinatum, p. 31.

A folium lyratum, p. 31.

A folium dolabriforme, p. 40.

A folium parabolicum, p. 29.

A folium pedatum, p. 36. of the Helleborus /-
ger.

A folium iigiivavaml p. 38.

The leaf of the Ulmus campestris, unequal, D.
28. and duplicato-dentate, p, 32,

A folium bipinnatum, p. 3

Fic. 250.

251.
252.
253.

490

A gemma convoluta, p. 59.
A gemma involuta, p. 59.

A gemma revoluta, p. 59.

A gemma conduplicata, p. 59.

254, 255. A gemma equitans, p. 59.

256.
257.
258.

A gemma obvoluta, p. 59.
A gemma plicata, p. 59.
A doubly convoluted gemma, p. 59.

259, 260. A doubly involuted gemma, p. 59.

261.
202.

An operculum, p. 112. with the fringe, p. 113.
A doubly revolute gemma, p. 59.

263, 264. A gemma equitans, p. 59.

265.

279.

A folium squarroso-laciniatum, which is also
decurrent, p. 42. and has a winged stalk, p.
Dale

A corymbus, p. 70.

A salver-shaped corolla, p. 81.

A spherical corolla, p. 81.

A funnel-shaped corolla, p. 81.

A doubled common perianthium, p. 79.

A ligulate corolla, p. 82. of the Aristolochia
Clematitis.

A bilabiate corolla, p. 82.

A cup-shaped corolla, p 81.

An urceolated corolla, p. 81.

A tubular corolla, p. 81.

A club-shaped corolla, p. 81.

A simple spike, p. 68.

A simple racemus, p. 79.

PLATE IX.

A section of the cuticle of the Lilium chaicedo-

nicum, much magnified, to shew the openings,

with the lymphatic vessels, § 236.

230,

=)

Sy
Sc

a

a Fe
So"
DoE Dose

=

282.

288.

cat i Ale
GS ay
* NA ii
WU I\ bl
Qh ae o : ;
“SA . ~ ; —
N

VGyNY/)
YNZ
|

| \ [
| Ay)
| SY |

oO :
Tae

&)
NS
ONSTES
\ TSct
— 2

g . ,
CH DY,
ay ¥ ta
a/) AWAMAO ARS SS
Q Ay 6 &
&) SSX

‘
Otzare Vest!

ae

reer {
BOr ie te
"

SE

-
ge :
-—<

oa see P

«

aK

Me AAS avi
al} Seti ‘
ie

ean

AE

bass Sey
ye 1 Ry ae?

han i
P ) setae VAS ebay ve wits 5
FAL AG & ,' 4 oe.

.

he

os

os" r 4 ‘
ME Alem en Nt le Ninh

iw,

Oi TEN TN a i

Per ensaeay|

PLATE. X.

Cacjars arovrens

2

a)

CLPOCEUS

nif

25 30

UPro- JUTTUP CUS

Bh 33
ater
34 f 36
WY\°MTCLS y 2 CANUS
e Nenfura CHULA UINCLAFMENM

Nc ERD PA Ona SAR NTT a |

Fic. 280.

281.

282.
283.

284.
285.

286.
287.
288.

289.

290.
291,

292,

49]

A section of the cuticle of the Allium Cepa, the
common onion, much magnified, to shew
the openings and the lymphatic vessels, § 236.

A section of the cuticle of Dianthus Caryophyl-
lus, common Pink, much magnified, to shew
the same.

Three air-vessels, § 235. much magnified.

The Capsules of the Octospora pustulata much
magnified, in which are seen two seeds in
each membrane, p. 115.

The Octospora pustulata of its natural size.

A folium digitato-pinnatum, p. 37. of the Mimo-
sa pudica, the Sensitive plant.

The Octospora villosa of its natural size.

The capsules of the same much magnified, to
shew the eight seeds.

The young stalk of the Utricularia vulgaris,
with the roots, at which hang the little blad-
ders, p. 51.

A branch of the common oak, having sinuated
leaves, p. 30. with the ramenta, p. 48. be
tween them.

A folium triplinevrium, p. 34.

The flowering umbel of a Cyperus, on the prin-

cipal peduncle of which is to be seen an
ochrea, p. 50.
A folium auriculatum, p. 28.

PLATE X.

Contains the various colours which are described
at p.197. The scale at the foot is used for
the various measures of plants mentioned in
pO;

INDEX

ERRATA.

‘Page 16, line 9, for fimpliciflima, read fimpliciflimu?’.

19, line 26, for from the left to the right, reed from the right te
the left.

-—— 29, lait line but one, for capillaris, read capillare.

—— 35, line 1, for cucullatus, read cucullatum.

—— 45, line 17, for coricea, read coriacea.

—— 47, line 21, for oppofitifolia, read oppofitifcliz.

—— 52, after line 18, infert, 2 Partial, (pertiale), which inclofes only the

umbellulz.
-—— 67, line 2, for terminalis, read terminale.
——- line 4, for axillaris, read axillare.

—— 67, line 7 for Har, read earlet or little fpike.

——— 69, line 18, for fecunda, read fecundus.

—— 77, latt line of the text, read but one as in.

—— 78, line 5, for polyphylius, read polyphyllum,

109, line 8, after fuccofa, add s. baccata.

wwe 131, line 3, for Lepaitc?, read hepatice. alae

INDEX

LATIN TERMS.

~ JET Sth!
A BBREVIATUM perianthium . 76 aeftivatio : oi ait : g
abortus : J 345 afora pericarpia , . 140
abrupte pinnatum folium : 36 aggregata feta ° ° 25
acaulis pileus 0 : 6 55 aggregatae : ; < 159
acaulis planta ‘ x 26 ala A : 84. 103. 124
acerofae arbores : d 268 alata drupa 4 : 106
acerofum folium 9 : 30 alatus caulis : . : 2X
acicularis pili : : 63 alatus petiolus ; : 24.
acinaciforme folium : - 39 albidus : : : 199
acinus ; 2 : r08 albigo baal ‘ 310
acotyledones : : : 11g albo-marginatum folium 5 | BOR
aculeatum folium : : 32 albo-variegatum folium : 2.03
aculeus é 5 56. 62 alburnum : A : 227
acuminata ligula ; : 52 albus 5 : : : 199
acuminatum folium ° 26 algae : ‘ 130. 151. 159
acuminatum operculum 3 1 alagoftemon 3 . 145
acutata ligula 5 5 5% alterna folia : : 6 40
acutangulatus caulis : 29 alternatim pinnatum folium 37
acutum folium d : 26 alterni rami : : : 17,
acutum operculum ; e 12% amentacaee 5 : 15g
acutum fligma : : 98 amentum 5 : : 73
Adanfonu fyftemata ; 144 ampios . . § 295
adducentia vafa. . : 237 amplexicaule foam é 42
adnata anthera : 2 95 eee ( . ise
adpreffum folium ( ‘ 42 anafarca : ° : ; 349
adverfum folium : 5 42 anaftomofis : : 254
aequale anthodium , 78 anceps caulis - : f 20
aequales lamellae : : 55 — anceps folium : 5 ; 39
aequalia filamenta : j 93 androgyna dichogamia : Cheily
aequalis polygamia 5 I5Q angicfperinia : 4 14g
aequivoca generatio é § 29% angiofpermia vegetabilia fo) OH
aeruginofus / ; 197 angulata anthera 5 : 94

angulatus
2

4.94

angulatus caulis . “6 Bt Ee)
angulofum figma . : 98
angulus , : 4 - 44
animalcula fpermatica . ~ . 324
annuae plantae . 3 eae BiR
annulatus flipes. ° 5 a5
- annulus : : Gee sah¢e |
anomalae eMuE Neate ° 139
anthera : : : : 93
anthefis B . % 9
anthodium . ‘ : «MTT:
apetalae : : : Saige)
apetalus flos 4 “3 “LOO
aphylius caulis_ ; ° 20
aphyllus los. : : 100
apice cohaerentes dentes A II4
apice dehifcens anthera : 94
apice dehifcens capfula : LO$§
apiculatum receptaculum . 127
apophyfis A ; . II4
approximata folia d , AL
arachnoideus annulus’, 54
arbores _ : : 131. 267
arboreus truncus : 0 Boy
argenteo marginatum folium . 263
argenteo-variegatum folium . 203
arillus : : : - 120
arifta : : : B 62
ariftata anthera : 4 94
ariftata valvula : : 77
ariftatus pappus . : 12%
artificiale fyftema : 5 130
articulate radix : é 15
articulate-pinnatum folium . 37
ariculati pili : : : 64
articulatum filamentum i 93
articulatum lomentum , . X12
articulatus caulis : cs 2X
arundinaceae 6 : - 139
afcendens caulis : é 18
afcidiformes bracteae Pasa 5X
afcidium é é : : 5X
afper : : 4
afperifoliae : : 158
ater : ; : dl 199
atropurpurcus 7. 198
atrovirens : Be Her ke 197
attenuatum améentum . , 93
auctum anthodium a i 49
aurantiacus : . a 198
auratum folium : 203
aureo-variegatum folium . 203
aureus ; : : - 198
auriculatum folium 4 Wal 28
avenium folium A th ; 84
axillare capitulum =, oon
axillare folium She eh ‘ 39

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS.

axillaris cirrhus :
axillaris pedunculus .
axillaris feta i 4
axillaris {pica . 5
axillaris {pina . .
azureus ; A

Bacca . y
baccata capfula :
baccata drupa_. ‘
baccata filicula 4
baccatus arillus 4
bacciferae . 5 6
badius A 5 :
barba 4 : :
barbatus . y c
bafi dehifcens capfula_ .
bafis i 5 i 3

bedeguar . ; .
bialata ala ; :
bicornes é ‘ .
bidentatum perianthium
biennes plantae °
bifariam imbricata folia ,
bifida anthera 4
bifida ligula ° °
bifidi dentes Pies
bifidum filamentum .
bifidum folium ;

bifidum perianthium .
bifidum ftigma , .
bifidus cirrhus , :
bifidus ftylus . :
biflora fpatha . :
biflora fpicula. A
biflorus pedunculus .
bifora pericarpia
bigeminatum folium .
bijugum pinnatum folium
bigeminum folium =.
bilabiata corolla
bilabiatum perianthium
bilobum folium 3
biloculare femen ore
bilocularis anthera “
bilocularis bacca :
bilocularis capfula
bilocularis nux :
bilocularis pepo °
binatum folium :
bipartitum perianthium
bipinnatum folium .

biferiales lamellae :
biternatum felium
bivalvis capfula
bivalvisgluma_ . ‘

bivalvisfpatha . .

e

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS. A495

bivafculares 5 wiueuey |) catnolumelccumen lo). iy: sean
Boerhaavii fyftema . 138 carnofum receptaculum LNs
brachiatus caulis) : : 17 carnofus caulis : : Dae
brachium ; : 4 ‘ yz carnofus arilus ; x 120
bractea : ; : : 48 cartilagineum folium ‘ 3k
bracteatus verticillus : 66 cartilagineus arillus ; 120
brunneus : s t 198 caryophy!lacea corolla ‘ 3
bulbifer caulis : : : 20 caryophylleae b 3 156
- bulbofi pili : : J 63 catenula 4 ; 3 IOs
bulbus : é : 60 cauda : ; : 123
bullatum folium : : 33 caulinum folium : i 33
/ caulinus fcapus : : 28
Caducae itipulae ‘ 4 47 caulis : 4 { 16
caducum perianthium 4 75 cava radix 4 i I4
caducus pappus o) . I2I cernuus racemus ° . 70
Caefalpini fyftema =. : 134 character : 3 163
caefius : : 197 chlorofis : 3 : 348
calcar 3 . : 89 chorion ° . : 330
calmariae 4 i 154 ciliata {pica 5 s 68
calycanthemae z . 156 ciliata ligula : 4 52
calyciflorae : : 156 ciliato-dentatum periftoma '. x14
calyciforme involucrum : 52 ciliatum anthodium : 78
calycoltemen : . 145 ciliatum folium : : 32
calycof{temones : : 144 ciliatus Shi . i 8
calyculatum anthodium : 79 ciliatus pappus : , 122
calyculatus pappa ° : 12k cinereus 2 ° 199
calyptra. 5 86, 105.112. cinnabarinus ; : 196
calypiratus arillus , : 120 cifcinata gemma : i 59
Calyx 4 5 : 94 circumfeifla capfula x 105
cambium 3 5 gor circumfeifius utriculus S 102
Camelli fyfiema 6 i 140. cirrhofum folium ; : 58
campanaceae A f 157 citrhofum pinnatum folium | 58
campanulata corolla b 8x cirrhus A : 3 57
campanulatus pileus : 54 claffis 0 ‘ j 32
canaliculatum folium : 33 claufum perianthium ; 76
eanaliculatum lerumen ; 111 clanfum receptaculum § 427
canaliculatus petiolus ; 24 Clavata corolla : : Sx
candidus : . 199 ciavatum fligma ‘ 5 98
GANUSIAN Lie : . 199 clavatus ftylus : : 97
capillare flamentum : 92 clavus : ° 367.
capillare folium : ‘ 29 coadunatae : : 15g
capillares 4 139 coarctatus caulis i i 17
capillaris pappus : : 2% coarctatata panicula 2 72,
éapillaris itylus 2 - | 97- coccineus : ; 198
capillus : : ; é 10 cochleatum legumen é lik
capitatae 5 : 5 139 coeruleus : 5 197
capitatum ftigma 5 : 98 color : : ‘ 197
capituliformis Hos : b 73 colorata gluma : 4 77
capitulum 6 7 ; 66 coloratae bracteaze : ; 49
caprificatio : A . 9 coloratum folium : 3 34
capiula 5 : : 103 coloratum perianthium i 76
carcinoma arborum 3 » 354 columella ; ee 104
carina : : : $4 columniferae : ; 158
carinatum folium ; : 35 columnula : F 105.154
carneus . ; ° 198 coma - . : 49. 123
carnofa pepo : . + 109 comofa {pica A : 62
carnofum felium . i 39 commune receptaculum enor T ty

&96

communis calyx : :
communis corolla d i
communis flos é
communis pedunculus ;
compofita bacca : :
<ompofita ipica . 2
compofita uimbella : .
compofitae , : ,
compofiti irregulares flores.
compofiti regulares flores.
compofiti regulares et irregulares
flores t M
compofitus flos : :
compofitum folium i
compofitus bulbus :
com pofitus racemus :
compreffa glandula :
compreflum folium A e
compreffum legumen :
comprefius caulis
compreflus petiolus s
concavum folium E a
concavum ftigma ? i
concavus pileus : ;
conductor fructificationis x
conduplicata gemma :
conferta folia “ .
conferta umbella .
confertus caulis - hy
confertus verticillus : A
congregatae : :
conicum capitulum k
conicum operculum i
conicum recepraculum 2
conicus ftrobilus — . ;
coniferae A %
conjugata {pica : :
conjugato pinnatum folium .
conjugatum folium
conjugatus racemus : .
connata hlamenta z f
connatae antherae s §
connatae flipulae ‘ :
connatum fclium . f
conniventia filamenta A
contextus celluloius
contorfiores ; ath
contortae 4 ;
contorti dentes é le
contractilitas : ;
convexa unibella 4 ‘
convexuem folum 5 2
convexum operculum j
convexum receptaculum ‘
convexus pileus a §
convoluta gemma : ;
gonvolutuin fligma ;

e °

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS.

convolutus cirrhus : 4 58
corculum : : 5 1x8
cordatum filamentum : 92
cordatum folium : : 27
coriacea frons 4 5 AS
coriaceum legumen : IIo
corniculatum filum 5 : go
corniculatum indufium : 57
cornu : : : é 124
corolla 6 : - : 80
corollaceus flos 6 5 Ico
corona : : : 9°
coronariae 5 : “ 155
cortex : A d U2
corticata capfula ‘ : 105
corticofa bacca ‘ ; 107
corticola pepo A 4 109
corticofum lomentum ‘ ¥1r
corydales . : ° 156
corymbiferae . ; . 139
corymbus ‘ ; : 70
cofta “ : I24
coftatum folium ei : on
cotyledon : . . 118
craflus ftylus 6 : 97
crenatum folium x % Be
crifpum folium . : 33
crifta ‘ 4 : 124
criftata anthera ° : 94
croceus . a 5 198
cruciata corolla 4 : 83
cruciforme ftigma : : 99
cruftacea frons ‘ i 45
cry ptogamia : : ° 147
cryptoftemon ( : ° 145
cryptoftemonis . C 144
cubitus ‘ : ° If
cucullata corona : : gt
cucullatum folium rs : as
cucullus : : 3 89
cucurbitaceae . . | ° 157
culmiferae ° : a5
culnius . : : : 22
cuneiforme Slamentum : gz
cuneiforme folium 4 ; 27
cuspidatum folinm 5 : 26
cutis’ ( : 27,
cyaneus 5 . : 197
cyathiformis corolla : i 3E
cyathiformis fungus ; é 65
cyathiformis glandula : 7%
cylindrica {pica : ane uO
cylindricum amentum. : 9.

cylindricum anthodium : 78
cylindricus ftrobilus oy is TG
cylindrus 0 . : 89
cyma ; 7k

Daedaleuny

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS,

Daedaleum folium , ,
debilitas

decandria Bohai
decemfiorus verrticillus
deciduae flipuiae, .
deciduum perianthium + .
deciduus ftylus

declinata filamenta
declinatus caulis ;
declinatus ftylus ‘
decompofitum folium
decumbens caulis —

decumbens furculus
decurrens folium .
decurrens ligula. i
decurrentes lamellae

decuffata folia °

decuflive pinnatum folium
deflexis ramis furculus

deflexus caulis ‘ :
defoliatio | : ° 3
defoliatio notha 4
dehifcens drupa .
deliquium, 4 °

deltoides folium

demerfum folium A
dentata anthera : :
dentata calyptra 5 5
dentata radix By haa :
dentato-crenatum folium
dentatum folium x <
dentatum perianthium
dentatum ftigma 4 6
dentes bifidi | : °
dentés contorti

denticulata pili .
depauperata umbella :
dependens folium 5
dependens involucrum
depreffum fohum

deferiptio °
~ dextrorfum moltbile ean .
diadelphia

dizenofis .

diandria e
diantherae : 5 :
> dichogamia 0 :
dichotomus caulis
dichotomus ftylus
dicotyledones S

didyma anthera : 3
didynamia ‘

differens ftructura ,
difformis corolla :
difformis flos : :
difformis pappus ‘ °

digitato-pinnatum folium

27
352
147

06

A]

74

97

93.
18
97
38

49%
digitatum folium 3%
digynia _ , T49
dijatatum flamentum : 9%
dimidiata calyptra : Ly
dimidiata fpatha 50
dimidiatum capitulgm : - 66
dimidiatum imvoluctum ° 52
dimidiatus arillus . 120
dimidiatus pappus 12E
dimidiatus pileus. 55
dimidiatus verticillus 65
dioecia é ib etAy
dipetala corolla : é 33
dipetalae | 5 - 139
dipetali irregulares flores gaa sne
dipetali regulares flores : I4i
diphylla corona é : 99
diphyllum involucrum : 5%
diphyllum perianthium >. 75
diphyllus pappus : 12%
diploftemones 146
dipterigia ala Ae . 124
dipyrena bacca_ : : 10
dipyrena drupa 0 5 107
difciformis flos . 5 74.
difcoideae ‘ : . 139
difcoideus flos : : 87
Guicus ie. 3 ¢ Caimi Ore
difperma bacca 5 . 107
difperma capfula : 5 104
difperma nux ; ; 106
difperma vegetabilia : tor
.. difpermum legumen : IIE
diffeminatio ig
diffepimentum » >» 103. 10g
diffimilis pappus , ° 123
diftans verticillus : : 66
difticha folia ; 5 AX
difticha {pica : . 68
diftichus caulis ; . 17
divaricatus caulis . : 18
divergens caulis see ke 13
divifa {pina : ° \ 6x
dodecandria : 5 147
dodrans ° ° Io
dolabriforme folium : 40
dorfalis arifta : 5 63
dorfiflorae filices ; ¥3r
drupa ° ° 106
drupacea filicula : 110
dumofae 3 6 I53
duplex corolla j . 359
duplex perianthium 2 a5
duplex volva 53
duplicato- dentatum folium 3%
duplicato-pinnatum folium. . 38
duplicate-

Jr

498

duplicato-ternatum folium
duplicatus bulbus . x
durum putamen ‘ 5

Echini ¥ e 3
elafticitas $ 4 §
ellipticum folium. a :
emarginatum foliuny A
emarginatum ftigma :
embryo : : :
enervium folium ss ,
enneandria 5 i ‘.
énodis caulis 8 ‘
enodis culmis : 2
enfatae a A ;
enfiforme folium st
epicarpius flos ° °
epidemicus mortus :
epidermis i 4
epigenedis °!
epiphragma ° .
epiphyllofpermae — :
eguitansgemma _—s_—,, ‘
erecta anthera x E
erectum folium 5

erectus annulus ; 3
erectus caulis ss ‘
erectus racemus iB é
erectus furculus Z
erolum folium y X
effentialis charaGter A
excrementa

exfucca bacca fs y
exfucca drupa : °
exfucca pepo .
extrafoliaceae ftipulae :
extrafoliaceus pedunculus
exulceratio 4

Factitius character =.
farinofum legumen 3
fafciculata folia a
fafciculata radix P
fafciculata fpica : K
fafciculatum lignum :
fafciculus 4 y
faftigiatns caulis enieatiiits
caux i a x x
‘favofum receptaculum ‘
ferrugineus : :
fibrofa drupa :
fibrofa radix A 2
fibrofa vafa , Mak
fibrofus caulis : 4
figura 4
fiouratum periftoma a
fila fucculenta ; :

36
60
105

56
219
28

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS.

filamentofa frons A AS.
filamentum : . 9%
filices 2 5 131, F5¥, 159
filiforme filamentum : 92
filiforme receptaculum : 127
filiformuis fiylus 2 “ 97
filum 4 : 5 go
fimbria ‘ , b £05, 113
fiffura : ; é 339
fiffum folium i 3 7
fiflum perianthium if a5
fiftulofus caulis o y 22,
flabelliforme folium 6 27
fiabelliformis frons ; ° 45
flavo- virens ‘ “ 197
ficxuofus cauhs 4 : 1g
florale folium : : 39
fidriferae : a 4 13k
floriferae gemmae : 58
flos ; i ° 74
flofculofus flos , 3 87
foemineus flos : 3 100"
foliacea ochrea : ¢ 50
foliaris cirrhus j 57
foliatio ; : : 5%
foliatus racemus ‘ 5 70
foliifero-floriferae gemmae . 58
foliolis decrefcentibus pinnatum
folium s K an
foliolum : . , 4A
foliofa {pica f : 68
foliofum ‘capitulumm : 66
foliofus caulis ¢ 5 20
folium 4 . 4 é 26
folliculus a 103
folliculus carnofus foliorumn 346
fornix : 4 5 go
fovea s ‘ s 89
fractura : A % 338
fragile putamen : e 106
frondefcentia . 5 gy
frondofi mufci ‘ ; 130°
frons’ A . : 45
fructificatio 4 ? a 9:
fructificationis ae . 4
fructus S e 1or
fruftranea polyearria ° 150
frutefcentia lilia $ 268
frutices 3 BS : A 132
frutices minores - : 268
fruticofa gramina : 268
fruticofus truncus < 2%
fugax annulus ‘ ‘ 54
fugax pappus ° Py 121
fulcra Bae, f 5 ; 46
fulcratus caulis “ 5 18
fungi : : 130, ISX, ISG

funiculus

INDEX TO THE

119

faniculus umbilicalis :

farcati pili g : 64
fufcus : : * 193
fufiformis radix z ia 13
Galea : ; 5 85
galeatae 136
galla A 6 345
gangraena : ‘ 356
geminae ftipulae , : Ay
geminatus aculeus 5 - 62
geminatus pappus : 123
gemma s é ; 58
gemmiformis flos : ; 73
genericum nomen _.. : 207
genicu’ata arifta e ° 63
geniculatus caulis : “ 20
genus ° : ojo 0) E323 /208
germen : 5 : 96
germinatio : : : 9
gibbofum folium ° : 39
gibbum folium y : 39
glaber : . : ° 7
glabrum folium : A 46
glabrum receptaculum 4 126
glandulg fi 4 6x, 87
glaucus : ; ¢ 198
Giedit{chii fyftema x 1447
globofa anthera 5 ; 93
yiobofa corolla : : or
globoia glandula ° ° 88
globofa radix : A I4
globofum anthedium é 78
globofum capitulum : 66
globofum receptaculum . 125
globofum ftigma : 93
globofus fungus 4 A 56
globofus ftrobilus , a16
glochis : 6 ° 65
glomerata {pica . : 67
glomerulus 5 ; 67
gluma : e : 77
glutinofus : ; 8
gongylus . ° 61
gracile amentum ° : 73
gramina : : 131, 155
graminibus affine : r46
granulata radix 5 5 14
grifeus . ° : 199
grofiificatio’ . ‘ 10
gruinales ; é 155
gymnolpermae : 2 LOL
gymnolpermia : : TAQ
zymnolpermia vegetabilia . 10%
gynandra dichogamia . 315
gynandria ‘ ‘ 147

tabicus ; é Br Lon, 1710

LATIN TERMS.

Halleri fyftema F
haemorrhagia

hamus i :
haftatum folium

‘hederaceae : é

hemifphaericnm anthodiun
hemifphaericum capitulum
hepaticae : :
hepatici mufci :
hepaticus ‘ :
heptandria .
herbaceus caulis :
herbae : °
herbarium <
Hermanni fyftema :
hermaphroditus flos
hefperides 4

hetex oclitae

hexafors pericarpia 5

hexagonus caulis :
hexandria , °
hexaperali irregulares flore
hexapetali regulares flores
hilum : .
hirtus : ;
hifridus , 5
holoraceae 2 5

homogamia ‘ HS

horizontale folium
horizontalis radix i
humifufus caulis

hyalinus i A
hypocarpius flos ,
hypocrateriformis corolla

Icofandria . Ps
icterus A

imbricata folia :
imbricata {pica :

imbricatum anthodium
impari pinnatum folium
inaequale folium
inaequales Jamellae
inaequalia filamenta
inanis caulis "
incompleti flores
incumbens anthera
incurvum filamentum
imcurvum folium

incurvus aculeus
imeurvus caulis
indicans macula i
indivifum folium 2
indufium b :
inferius labium ‘
inferum germen “
inferus flos i s

105, £

> T4t

4 8x

YOE
inflatum

5090

inflatum perianthium — °
inflexum folium 3 :
inilorefcentia © : °
iniundibuliformis corolla :
integer caulis : :
integer pappus °
integerrimum folium :
integia calyptra : 5
integra ligula : :
integrum folium ° °
integrum perianthium °
Interrupta {pica : :
interruptae lamellae Gy silane

inter‘upte-pinnatum folium .
intrafoliaceae ftipulae , .-
intrafoliaceus pedunculus © .
tnuedatna i
inverfus annulus :
involucratus jpeswaotin .
involucrum — 6 .
involuta gemma : °
irregularis corolla :
irritabilitas 6 .
ifoftemones

ifthmis interceptum foment
jugum : i
juliferae . : °
julus iy :

‘Kneutii f yftema :

Labellum 5 i
Jabiatum REELS i
fabium . 4 nar i
lacera ligula i Bienk
Jacerus arillus Ais
facinia u ; :
laciniatum folium A i
lactefcentes ini cine wane
jacteus 5 ; ;
lacunofum folium ;
laevis 8 5 .
lamella A : ie
lamina 4 Ade
lana i WV; 4
lanatus , ;: ae
lanceolatum folium ¢
Jaterale ftigma | . :
laterales. ftipulae : .
lateralis anthera H
lateralis bulbus ; ,
lateralis pedunculus :
lateralis feta. : ,
lateralis {pica .
Jateralis ftylus 4 °
latere dehifcens anthera .

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS.

laterifolius pedunculs i
latcritius ° 5 :
laxus caulis siete i
laxus racemus .

- Jaxus utriculus : A

legumen : : :
leguminofae ete 3 i
lepra a

levis i : é
libera anthera ; ‘
liber 2 “a és
liberum filamentum A
lignofa capfula § 6
lignofum legumen 24 aN
lignofus-caulis : *
lignum ~ : t
ligula : 3 A
ligulata corolla : :
hijacinus ¢ A A
lilia : ° e °
liliacea corolla ft
limbus A 4

linea - ; 4 A
lineare folium % .

linearis anthera i :
linearis {pica - :

lineatum folium
linguiforme folium v

Linnaei fyftema : :

hvidus A oi :
lobatum folium 5 4
Jobus > ; 3
Joculamenta :

focuttaw we y ,
lomentaceae a A
lomentum - oes .
lunatum folium 3
luridae x i :

lymphatica vata 4 :

yeatuay folinm

Meecoli fyitema j
malvacea corolla 4
marcefcens perianthium
mareefcens {patha

marceicens ftylus 3 :
marginatus pappus =~ -
margo membranaceus .
mafculus flos . . n ¢
saturatio: a é A
meduila : 3
nedullaria vafa . .
mejo{temones 4
melligo ‘ z :
membrana interna . ,

membranacea valvula X

INDEX TO THE

membranaceo-dentatum perifto-
ma . Wh ; II4
membranaceum folium : 39
membranaceum legumen . 110
membranaceus arillus |. 120
membranaceus caulis : 21
membranaceus margo ‘3 124
methodus : : 161
miniatus : “ x98
mufcellaneae : : 159
mobilis annulus iy 4 Hyg}
Moenchii fyftema Six. 145
molendinacea femina ; I24
monadelphia : E 147
monandria 6 : 147
monantherae 4 : 145
moniliformia vafa ¢ 237
monocotyledones ° ie 11g
mono¢ecia is : T47
monogamia fyngenefia : 150
monogynia : : : LAQ
mocopetala corolla . Be IS)
monopetalae : : 139
monopetali irregulares mares AL
monopetali regulares Hores . 14%
monopbylla corona : EGO
monophyllum anthodium f 78
monophyllum perianthium . 75
monopterigia ala ; 124
monopyrena drupa.. : 107
monofperma bacca 6 4 107
monosperma vegetabilia : IoY
monofpermum legumen 5 III
monftrofitas : : 358
monftrum : 5 : 1838
Morifoni fiftema . 5 13
mucronatum folium : 26
mucronatum operculum. 113
multangularis caulis =< 4 20
multialata ala ie 124
multicapfulares : : 15
multidentatum perianthium =. 75
multifidum filamentum : 93
multifidum iolium A ¢ 27
multifidum perianthium . a5
multifidum ftigma 2 : 99
multifidus cirrhus : ; 58
multifidus ftylus : : 97
multiflora fpatha ; : 50
multiflora fpicula < : 67
multiflorus verticillus ; 66
multilocularis bacca : 107
multilocularis capfula . 104.
multilocularis nux : ° 106
multilocularis pepo . 109
multipartitum perianthium . 7
multiplicatus les 4 359

LATIN TERMS, 501.
multifiliquae . ° Is7
multivalvis capfula s 104
multivalvis gluma ‘ é 94
muricatum anthodium 78
muricatus : i 8
miuici : ° 130, 151, 159
mutica anthera sy. 4 94
mutilatio A ; 357
Napiformis radix " 14
natans folium : : 43
naturale fyftema 5 > 130
naturalis character a 163
naturalifiima ftructura : 166
neceffaria polygamia : 150
nécrolis Fy “ : 354
nectariferae fquamae ° 88
nestarifcri pori : : 88
neclarium ; : 87
nervolum folium : : 33
nidulantia fermina ‘ ; 119
niger ‘ : ; 199
nifus formativus ; : 220
nitidus : ° ° 7
nodofi pili ; - 63
nodoius caulis : : 21
eee: culmus : 5 2%
non cohaerentes dentes : 114
non umbilicatae arbores : 139
nucleus ; : 106
nuda arifta : : 62
nudum capitulum : : 67
nudum periftoma . : 1X3
nudis caulis : : 20
nudus culmus : : 22
nudus flos 5 : . 100
nudus recemus ; 69
nudus fi1pes 2 d 25
nudus verticillus ; ; 66
nullum periftoma . : Ls
numerus : ; : 166 -
nutans caulis : : 19
nutans racemus 4 : 7O
nutrientia vafa 4 “ 237
nux ; : : 105
Obcordatum folium : AA.
obliqua Ochrea ‘ 5 50
obliqua radix : : 13
obliguum folium : 4 A3
oblonga anthera : : 93
oblonga glandula : : 83
oblonga radix 5 sa Ta
oblongum folium ; 23
oblongum thiema 4 98
obrufe anpulatus caulis : 20
)

obtufin folium

obtufi tr

562

obtufum ftigma
obovatum folium
obvoluta gemma
ochraceus 5
ochrea

octandria
octodentatum periftoma
octoflorus verticillus
octona folia
oleraceae

operculata capfula
operculum — :
oppofita folia °

oppolite pinnatum folium

oppoliti rami
oppofitiflorus pedunculus
oppolitifoliae ftipulae
oppolitifolius pedunculus
orbiculatum folium
orchidea corolla
orchideae

2

ordine duplici dentatum perifto-

ma

ordine fimplic dentatum perifto-

ma é
ordo
orgya
ovale folicen)
ovata {pica
ovatum amentum
ovatum folium
ovatus ftrobilus

Palaceum folium
palatum

palea .
paleaceum receptaculum
paleaceus pappus
pallide flavens
palmae

palmata radix
palmatum folium
palmatus aculeus
palmus
panduraeforme fala
panicula
papilionacea corolla
papilionaceae °
papillae

papillofus
pappiforniis lana
pappofae

pappus

papulofus i
parabolicum folium
parapetalo{temon
parafitica planta

154,

79>

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS,

parenchyma :
paripinnatuni folium

partiale involucrum, (/ee Errata ).

partialis pinna °
partialis umbella
partitum folium
partitum perianthium
patens caulis

patens folium

patens perianthium
patentiflima panicula
pedatum folium :
pedicellatae ftipulae
pedicellatum germen
pedicellus

pediculus

peduncularis cirrhus
pedunculata umbella
pedunculatus verticillus
pedunculus

pelta : 4
peltata anthera
peltatum folium :
peltatum indufium
peltatum fligma
pendula radix
pendulus racemus :
penicilliforme ftigma
pentafora pericarpia
pentagonus caulis
pentandria °
pentapetalse :
pentapetala corolla

pentapetali irregulares flores
pentapetali regulares flores
pentaphyllum perianthium

pentaphyllus pappus
pentaptera ala :
pepo : .
perfoliatum folium
perfoliatus caulis
perforatum folium
perianthium
pericarpium °
perichaetium
periftoma
periftomium
perpendicularis radix
perfiftens annulus
perfiftens pappus
perfiftens perianthium
perfiftens {patha
perfiftens ftipula
perfiftens flylus
perfonata corolla
perfonatae : :

pes

ex5
° ay )

158
10
petaloi-

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS~

petaloideum ftigma 99
petaloftemon YAS
petaloftemonis 144
petalum 80
petiolaris cirr nee Sy
petiolaris pedunculus 23
petiolata glandula 61, 88
petiolatae ftipulae 48
petiolatum afcidium 51
petiolatum folium 42
petiolus : . 24
phoeniceus 198
phthiriafis . 349
pileus ; 54
pilofa anthera 535 94
pilofum filamentum 93
pilofum folium 46
pilofum receptaculum 226
pilofus : 5 : q
pilofus pappus 122
pilus y 63
pinna 44
pinnata frone) 46
pinnatifidum fohum 31
pinnatum cum impari folium 37
pinnatum folium 36
pinnula é . 44
piperitae 154
piftillum 96
placentiforme receptaculumi 127
plana glandula 88
plana umbella : : 7%
planipetalae ° . 139
plantae 131
planum anthodium 719
planum folium 39
planum indufium §

planum operculum 113
planum receptaculum 126, 125
planus pileus 54
plenus flos 360
plica 89
plicata gemma 59
plicata folium 33
plumofa arifta 3 62
plumiofi pili : . 64
plumofum ftigma 99
plumofus pappus ¥2%
plumula 119
pheumato-chymifera vata 2439
pollen : 95
pollex : é Xe)
polyadelphia 147
polyandria 147
polycotyledones 119
polygamia 147,150
polygonus caulis ZL

y)

polygynia

polypetala corolla
polypetali irregulares flores
polypetali regulares flores
polyphyla corona
polyphyllum anthodium
polyphyllum involucrum
polyphyllum perianthium =,
polyphyllus pappus
polypteria ala :
polyfperma bacca
polyfperma capfula
poly{perma vegetabilia
poly{permae
polyfpermum legamen
polyftemones
pomaceae

pomiferae

pomum

Pontederae fyftema
pori .
praedelineatio
praeformatio
praemorfa radix
praemorfum folium
prafinus .
preciae :
procumbens caulis
prolifer caulis

prolifer flos

| tse)

proportio °
propria pinna

propria vafa ~
proprium receptaculum
proftratus caulis
pruina

pubefcens :
puhefcens ftigma
pubefeentes pili
pulverulenta frons
punctatum folium
punctatum receptaculum
punctatus

puniceus

purpureus

putamen

putamineze

Quadrangulare folium
quadrane‘'ularis caulis

‘quadrialata ala

quadridentatum perianthium
quadridentatum periftoma
quadrifariam imbricata folia
quadrifidum folium
guadrifidem perianthium

105
157

36
20

¥24

75

1X3

4i

27

iS
quadri-

504

quadrifidus ftylus :
quadrijugum pinnatum folium
guadrilocularis capfula :
quadripartitum perianthium
guadriya{culares :
quaterna folia : “|
quina folia : :
quinatum folium : ;
Sul nauaneulet. folium °
quinquealata ala 5

quiiiquedentatum perianthium
quinquetidum folium
quinquejugum pimnatum folium
quinquelobum folium .
quinguevafculares é
quintuplinervium folium ;

Racemus : x
zadiatus flos - .
radicale folium d 5
radicalis pedunculus :
radicans caulis é .
radicans folium A ‘
radicula
radii umbellae a 5
radius . A ‘
radix 5 s 4
Raji fyftema d °
ramentaceus caulis ; 5
ramentum ‘5 ‘ :
rameum folium f r
rami 3 :
ramofa panicula i A
ramofa radix 5 5
ramoia {pica ° .
ramofa {pin
ramofae lamellae ‘ :
ramofi pili AV: A
yamofum filamentum <
ramofum folium é 3
ramolus caulis i i
ramotus culinus a
samofus furculus is é
ramofiflima panicula .
ramofiflimus caulis <
Fara umbella ‘
receptaculum : ;
reclinata gemma & b
reclinatum folium ‘ _
recta arifta é : :
rectum filum ¢

rectus aculeus é .
rectus racemus
rectus itylus,=4.). :
recurvata arifta 3 ‘
recurvus aculeus ‘
reducentia vafa j

° °

97
44
104

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS.

reflexum folium dtl dae Ay
reflexum perianthium “ 76
reflexus caulis p b 18
remota folia : ‘4 4E
reniforme folium 6 “ 27
reniformis anthera : 93
repandum folium SLD ie 3%
repens caulis ; . Ig
repens radix 5 “ 13
repens furculus : < 25
reticulato-venofum folium oa
reticulatum lignum : ho GXOXG:
reticulatus arillus A 6 120
retictiatus bulbus : 690
retroflexus caulis : z 18
retufum folium |. : 29
revoluta gemma 5 e 59
revolutum folium . . 43
revolutum ftigma . : 99
revolutus cirrhus d ; 58
rhizofpermae filices : 131i
rhoeadeae : > é 157
rhombeum folium A > 29
rictus 5 4 d $5
rigidus caulis 5 . 18
rimofus caulis : ° 2%
ringens corolla : Sue Oe,
Rivini fyftema : . I4X
ro{acea corclla : 83
rofeus . : 198
roftellum : A x18
roftrum 3 : 124
rotaceae é : 156
rotata corolla : : 32
Royeni fyftema e ° 147
rubigo . . 343
rugofum folium : ° 33
runcinatum folium q 31
Sacculus colliquamenti : 331
fagittata anthera j : 94
fagittatum folium : 28
famara “ : 5 103
fanguineus : . 198
farmentaceae sg j 155
farmento{us caulis : 19
farurato-virens : ° 197
{caber 4 . : 7
{cabridae : : 159
fcandens caulis site : 19
fcandentes : 135
{capus — sat ° . 23
fcariofum anthodium : 7%
{citamineae i : 1S
{crobiculatum receptacnun) 127
{cutella 4 116
{cyphiformis fungus. ° 56

fcyphus

INDEX TO THE

fcyphus : : ‘ 61
fecunda panicula i : q%
fecunda {pica a ‘ 68
fectindus racemus apaeien 69
fedecimdentatum periftoma X13
fegregata polygamia y T50
femen EN . 11g
femiflofculofus flos é 36
femilocularis pepo 6 109
feminale folium ~ ; ° 38
femine folitario herbae A 134
femiradiatus flos : ¢ aS7)
femiteres caulis misiRR oh 20
femiverticale folium : AZ
fena folia RESORE ION \ AL
fenfilites A 220
fenticofae , 157
fepiariae: : 5 158
feptis _tranfverfis interftindtus BS
caulis ae é ‘ 22
feptuplinervium , 34
fericeus Sy
ferratum folium i 3%,
Aefquialteris ftaminibus , 146
fef juitertiis ftaminibus 1 446

feffile afcidium a A SI
feffile folium a A, 4%
feffile germen He “ 96
fefiile ftigma n : 99
fefiiles ftipulae F ‘a Ad
feflilis annuius bea ig 8)
feflilis anthera é 5 95
feffilis glandula CAN 61, 88
feffilis pappus © : gas IZt
feflilis pileus ars é 55
feflilis umbella he A aI
felitlis verticillus : 65
feta 25
fetaceum receptaculum 124
fetaceus culmus uss 2%
fetaceus pappus 0 A) 12%
fetaceus itylus : % ROG;
fexflorus verticillus’ 6 66
fexuale fyftema ~ . 3 130
texus : apis Leop f
ficco frucru arbores 138
ficcum receptaculum is T25
filicula : ; ‘ 109
filiculofa : 4 149
filiqua : : ‘ 109g
filiquofa : : ° 149
filiquofae = Sh é 158
fimplex antbodium — 2 78
fimplex caulis A 4 16
dimplex cirrhus as : 57
éimplex culmus : Jan) 2%
fimples 5 panicula e 72,

an acy

LATIN TERMS.

fimplex periantbium : 78
fimplex racemut ‘ ‘0 69
fimplex {pica : 68
fimplex {pina | : 6%
fimplex furculus~ : 2§
fimplex umbella : 7X
fimplices herbae . 137
fimplices pili ‘ : 63
fimpliciffimus caulis i 16
fingularis ftructura: : 168
finiftrorfum volubilis caulis 19
finuatum folium 390
finus ie é : 6 Aa.
fitus : b - 166
fmaragdrnus : : 197
folidus bulbus cs : 60
_ folidus caulis : . 21
folitaria feta . * 25
fulitariae {tipulae A b A7
folitarius AONE : 62
fomnus . : 9
{padix : 6 43,
fparfa folia ; : 5 4o
fparfus caulis : in)
fpatha ° TRAM Pile 49
{pathaceae 5 15s
{pathulatum folium : 29
{pecies : 132, 138
{phacelatae ftipulae SNS YAS
{phaericum capitulum, : 66
fipica, ¢ | Wiis. 4 : 67
{piciferae filices ; E34
{picula. » a ‘ ay
{pina : : 6f
{pinofum anthodium : 78
{pinofum folium : 32
fpirale ftioma ’ : G9
{pirales filtulae 5 ° 239
{piralia vafa ; 239
{pithama ty 2 Io
{pengiofum receptaculum 126
f{poradicus morbus'’ 336
{poraneidium 105, 114
fpuria bacca uty)
fpuria capfula 116
{puria drupa f It?
{puria nux 6 117
{purius fructus 5 . 116
{quama : : 79
f{quiamationes ¢ 347
{quamofa radix : 1s
fquamofum anthodium : 78
{quamofus bulbus ~ 60
fquamofus caulis ’ ; 20
{quamolus pileus 53
{quamofus itipes : 2§
{quarrolo-laciniatum folinm 3%
ates Sets quar’

ph eta f

E06 INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS.

fquarrofum anthodium :
{quarrofus pileus :
{lamina ; 5
{tamineae 5 3
ftaminiformis corona A
ftellata folia i $
ftellata frons 3 .
ftellata volva ; é
fteliatae ‘ é
tellati pili : H
itellatus pappus is
fterilitas 3 $
fligma : $ 3
ftiginatoftemon - 4
fives 5 s
Ripitatus pappus ;
ftipitatus pileus “
ftipulae : é
ftolo 3 i 3

‘

ftriatus A SG 3

{triCtus caulis 4 ;
ftriius racemus a
Strictus utriculus :
ftriga : : ‘
trigofus A ‘
{trobilus A A
itruGura 4 :
ftyloftemon : :
ftyloftemonis : é
ftylus ; 5 A
fubalare folium : 2
fubaphyllus caulis 4
fubcordatum folium 4
fubdimidiato-cordatum folium
fubdimidiatum folium x
fuberofus caulis 3 :
fubmarinae herbae § 5
fubovatum folium .
fubramofus caulis *
fubretundum capitulum :

fubrotundum folium 5
fubferratum folium
fubfpecies ° rs
fubteres caulis . 5
fubulati pili . A
fubulatum filamentum 5
fubulatur folium 5
fubulatus ftylus :
fuccofa bacca : i
fuccola vafa ¢ }
fucculenta fila 4 ‘
fucculentae i ;
fucculenius arillus ‘
Juffocatio incrementi ‘
Tuffrutices ‘ n
fulcatus ‘ ‘
fulphureus & ‘

fuperflua polygamia °
fuperius labium :
fuperum germen :
fuperos flos : ‘4
fupradecompofitum folium
furculus : :

futura t i 8

fyngenefia 3 :
fynonyma : 5
fyftema uy f
‘Tabes i 3
tela cellulofa 3
teredo pinorum 4
teres caulis ‘ :
teres folium :
teres petiolus 2
tergeminum folium
terminale capitulum
terminalis arifta 4
terminalis feta 5
terminalis {pica :
terminalis {pina :
terminalis ftylus 3
terna folia | F 4
ternatum folium

tefticulata radix -

tetradynamia = =

tetrafora pericarpia -
tetragonum folium =
tetragonus caulis =
tetragynia = -
tetrandria - -
tetrapetala corolla -
tetrapetali irregulares flores
tetrapetali regulares flores
tetraphylla corona -
tetraphyilum involucrum
tetraphyllum perianthium

tetraptera ala - =

tetrapyrena drnpa’ =
tetrafperma vegetabilia
thalamoftemon -
thalamoftemonis 8
thalamus = =
theca = °
thyrfus = an =
tomentofus - =
tortilis arifta ee
torulofum legumen =

Tourneforti fyftema -

tracheae - >

trapeziforme folium =

trialata ala - -
triandria = -
triangulare folium “=
triangularis caulis -
triantherae S

20
145

Wicsptulares

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS.

tricapfulares 2 BS
tricocca capfula 5
tricoccae - Jie
tridentatum folium -

tridentatum perianthium
trifariam imbricata folia

trifidum perianthium =
trifidum ftigma ie es
trifidus cirrhus -
trifidus itylus - -
trifora pericarpia =
triflora f{picula =
triflorus pedunculus =
trigeminatum folium =
triginti dno dentatum periftoma
trigonus caulis -
trigynia ~ =
trihilatae - -
trijugum pinnatum folium
trilobum folium -
trilobum ftigma -
trilocujaris bacca | = 4
trilocularis capfula -
trilocularis nux -
trilocularis pepo >
trinervium folium =
trloecia - ~
tripartatum perianthium
tripetala corolla =
tripetalae - -

tripetali irregulares flores
tripetali regulares flores
tripetaloideae - -
triphylla corona = -
triphyllum involucrum -
triphyllum perianthium -
triphyllus pappus - -
tripinnatum folium ~
triplex corolla = =
triplicato-pinnatum folium
triplicato-ternatum folium
triplinervium folium -
tripterigia ala - -
tripyrena bacca = =
tripyrena drupa -
triquetrum folium =
triquetrus caulis = =
triferiales lamellae — >
trifperma bacca -
trifperma capfula “
trifperma nux = -
triternatum folium -
trivalvis capfula
trivalvis gluma : =
trivafculares - -
triviale nomen = ~
truncata ligula = -

truncata ochrea = - 59
truncatum folium ~ 26
truncus - = 22
tuber lignofum = = 347
tuberculatum receptaculum 127
tuberculum : 4 116
tuberofa radix , 4 14
tubulofa corolla - ; 8x
tubulofum folium : : 39
tubulofum perianthium : 76
tubus : S tate o4
tunica externa a A Iig
tunicatus bulbus : s 60
turbinatum anthodium : 78
Ulna Me : : It
umbella A ‘ a
umbellatae : ; 158
umbelliferae : : 139
umbellula ‘ : Fite
umbilicatae arbores 5 138
umbo : . 4 tS
umbonatus pileus 54
uncla @ ° . XO
uncinati pili 5 : 63
uncinatum folium : a 40
uncinatum ftigma : : 98
undulatum folium ; 3I
uneuis 3 : 50, 86
uniflora fpatha : : 50
uniflora {picula ‘ ‘ 67
uniflorus pedunculus : 23
uniflora pericarpia : : IAG
_ uniformis pappus ‘ ‘ Wa,
unilabiata corolla : : Oz
unilateralis racemus : : 69
unilocularis anthera 6 94
unilocularis bacca ‘ : 107
unilocularis capfula ' 104
unilocularis pepo : . 109
univalvis gluma 5 : oi
univalvis {patha ‘ é A)
univafculares G Ouse s 137
univerfale involucrum : 52
univerfalis umbella 5 : 7X
urceolata corolla i Sr
urceolatum perianthium . 7
urens : : i 8
uftila gb : ‘ : 356
utriculi : 4 ; 2AE
utriculus ; : ; Oz
Vaga fpatha ‘ ; 50
vagina : , ; A
vaginatum folium oie Ag
vaginatus culmus : : Dips
vaginula : . : 86

Vaoinatum

508

valvula ‘ : 97,104 verticillus
yalvulis diffepimento contrariis 116 vexillum -
valvulis di ifepimento parallelis’ xr0 vigiliae :
varietas : : 132,188 villofa calyptra
varium receptaculum - )4n27 villofum receptaculum
venofae lamellae : 56 villofus D6
venofo nervofum folium ‘ 34 villus :
venofum fohum 3, e Save violaceusm 9) 6
ventricola {pica : : 63 virgatus caulis
wentricolum legumen : III —virginitas
vepreculae : A 137 vis mortua
verminatio a) : 350 =viicidus :
vernatio : q 9 vifcidus pileus
verruca : I , 125 vita propria
verrucofum folium 40 vitellinus ;
verfatilis anthera : a! Y§ vivipara vegetabilia
verticale folium . . 42 volubilis caulis
verticitlata folia : : AL volva :
verticillata {pica ‘ 68 volnus 5 ee
verticillarae j , 158 Wachndorfiifyftema § .
werticillatus caulis ¢ 16
FON

INDEX TO THE LATIN TERMS,

EDINBURGH,
Printed by C. SVEWART. ¢

i

Nett;

ne i
f

Pr Pad